Sutro Review 2017
SF State Journal for Undergraduate Composition
(Please click on authors and headings under Contents to navigate through the document)
SF State Journal for Undergraduate Composition
(Please click on authors and headings under Contents to navigate through the document)
Dear Readers,
We are excited to present the second annual volume of Sutro Review: SF State Journal for Undergraduate Composition, an academic journal produced by graduate students devoted to publishing the work of undergraduate students at San Francisco State University.
Sutro Review celebrates the diverse and talented voices among undergraduates at SF State and aims to share those voices with the broader learning community. Our second issue includes nineteen student essays from a variety of class levels and disciplines, as well as showcases some of the teaching faculty who informed those good works. Essays include a rich palette of topics: a Russian novelist’s utilization of magical realism, the increasing threat of oceanic changes, how to embrace autism, Filipino colonial mentality… to name a few! In short, we provide a glimpse into the broad spectrum of work produced in a range of undergraduate courses at our university.
Special thanks goes to English Department Chair, Sugie Goen-Salter, Director of Composition, Tara Lockhart, and the SF State University Instructionally Related Activities Fund for making this project possible.
We hope you enjoy reading!
Sincerely,
Sutro Editors
Faculty Supervisor:
Christy Shick
Editors:
Kandace Lindstrom
Rene Juarez
We are excited to present the second annual volume of Sutro Review: SF State Journal for Undergraduate Composition, an academic journal produced by graduate students devoted to publishing the work of undergraduate students at San Francisco State University.
Sutro Review celebrates the diverse and talented voices among undergraduates at SF State and aims to share those voices with the broader learning community. Our second issue includes nineteen student essays from a variety of class levels and disciplines, as well as showcases some of the teaching faculty who informed those good works. Essays include a rich palette of topics: a Russian novelist’s utilization of magical realism, the increasing threat of oceanic changes, how to embrace autism, Filipino colonial mentality… to name a few! In short, we provide a glimpse into the broad spectrum of work produced in a range of undergraduate courses at our university.
Special thanks goes to English Department Chair, Sugie Goen-Salter, Director of Composition, Tara Lockhart, and the SF State University Instructionally Related Activities Fund for making this project possible.
We hope you enjoy reading!
Sincerely,
Sutro Editors
Faculty Supervisor:
Christy Shick
Editors:
Kandace Lindstrom
Rene Juarez
Contents
FRESHMEN
Kaitlyn Kehrmeyer, “Ask Politely: the Gender Language Revolution”
Megan Martino, “Cultural Identity and Dining in ‘Fish Cheeks’
Jan Michaela Yee, “Down to a Trio”
Nimiksha Mahajan, “The Benefits of Bilingual Edudation”
Ivan Manriquez, Jr., “The Analytic Perspective of Ocean Changes”
SOPHOMORES
Swetha Pottam, “Her Body, But Not Her Choice”
Celine Margaret Wuu, “The Bay Area Urban Indian Community”
Alexa Almira, “Asians in the Library”
Christina Colombo, “The Last of the Yahi”
Andrew Harrington, “Climate Change: From Theory to Reality”
Jovana Toscano, “Neurotribes and Making Peace with Autism”
JUNIORS
Isaiah Dale, “The Oriflammes of Non-Opportunistic Individuals”
Jose Francisco, “Community Assessment: Bayview-Hunters Point”
Aureolus Stetzel, “Jamaica in Perpetual Crisis”
SENIORS
Kareena del Rosario, “The Power of the Fabliaux”
David Hlusak, “First Came the Sound”
Nancy Rodriguez Zambo, “Emancipating the Curated Filipino”
Emily Hollocks, “Tyrannical Dictatorships in Deathless”
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
FRESHMEN
Kaitlyn Kehrmeyer, “Ask Politely: the Gender Language Revolution”
Megan Martino, “Cultural Identity and Dining in ‘Fish Cheeks’
Jan Michaela Yee, “Down to a Trio”
Nimiksha Mahajan, “The Benefits of Bilingual Edudation”
Ivan Manriquez, Jr., “The Analytic Perspective of Ocean Changes”
SOPHOMORES
Swetha Pottam, “Her Body, But Not Her Choice”
Celine Margaret Wuu, “The Bay Area Urban Indian Community”
Alexa Almira, “Asians in the Library”
Christina Colombo, “The Last of the Yahi”
Andrew Harrington, “Climate Change: From Theory to Reality”
Jovana Toscano, “Neurotribes and Making Peace with Autism”
JUNIORS
Isaiah Dale, “The Oriflammes of Non-Opportunistic Individuals”
Jose Francisco, “Community Assessment: Bayview-Hunters Point”
Aureolus Stetzel, “Jamaica in Perpetual Crisis”
SENIORS
Kareena del Rosario, “The Power of the Fabliaux”
David Hlusak, “First Came the Sound”
Nancy Rodriguez Zambo, “Emancipating the Curated Filipino”
Emily Hollocks, “Tyrannical Dictatorships in Deathless”
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
FRESHMAN
Kaitlyn Kehrmeyer
Ask Politely: the Gender Language Revolution
Ask Politely: the Gender Language Revolution
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Kaitlyn Kehrmeyer was born and raised in a small town in the foothills north of Los Angeles. Although much of her childhood was spent living in the suburbs and hiking/exploring the outdoors, she absolutely adores the vibrancy and culture of city life. Prior to her move to SF, her adolescent life was a youthful whirlwind. She spent the better half of her high school years attempting to balance her responsibilities as a student with the lures of the DIY music and art scene. By sophomore year of high school, she decided to ditch the name Kaitlyn and go by Kehrmie instead; she forged a sense of identity and character through that name (by which she still goes). Literature, poetry, music, and photography have allowed her to explore many different aspects of herself, as well as her role in the world. While she originally intended to study Environmental Science at SF State, she’s recently decided to pursue a her undergraduate degree in Sociology.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, SARA FELDER:
In this essay, Kaitlyn (AKA Kehrmie) critiques our society for its frequent erasure of the experience of transgender and gender nonconforming people. Offering a seemingly simple solution -- the use of the pronoun “they”, Kehrmie’s sly linguistic revolution brings awareness to the experience of many people on the margins of social constructions of gender. I appreciate her clear voice and compelling investigation into how language informs culture and bias. She completed her essay for our research unit of English 114, after a couple of drafts and peer review. Students were asked to choose a topic in the intersection of language and social justice. Kehrmie’s essay arrives at an urgent moment as legal battles rage and society ponders the civil rights of transgender and gender nonconforming folks.
Kaitlyn Kehrmeyer was born and raised in a small town in the foothills north of Los Angeles. Although much of her childhood was spent living in the suburbs and hiking/exploring the outdoors, she absolutely adores the vibrancy and culture of city life. Prior to her move to SF, her adolescent life was a youthful whirlwind. She spent the better half of her high school years attempting to balance her responsibilities as a student with the lures of the DIY music and art scene. By sophomore year of high school, she decided to ditch the name Kaitlyn and go by Kehrmie instead; she forged a sense of identity and character through that name (by which she still goes). Literature, poetry, music, and photography have allowed her to explore many different aspects of herself, as well as her role in the world. While she originally intended to study Environmental Science at SF State, she’s recently decided to pursue a her undergraduate degree in Sociology.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, SARA FELDER:
In this essay, Kaitlyn (AKA Kehrmie) critiques our society for its frequent erasure of the experience of transgender and gender nonconforming people. Offering a seemingly simple solution -- the use of the pronoun “they”, Kehrmie’s sly linguistic revolution brings awareness to the experience of many people on the margins of social constructions of gender. I appreciate her clear voice and compelling investigation into how language informs culture and bias. She completed her essay for our research unit of English 114, after a couple of drafts and peer review. Students were asked to choose a topic in the intersection of language and social justice. Kehrmie’s essay arrives at an urgent moment as legal battles rage and society ponders the civil rights of transgender and gender nonconforming folks.
The world is a complicated place for non-cisgender people—those whose gender identity does not match their biological sex. Whether it’s getting dressed in the morning, using public restrooms, or merely responding to a name, existing as a non-cisgender person in a gender normative society presents difficulties on many fronts. Anxiety when correcting others who call them by the wrong name, confusion and dissociation with their body and sense of self when looking in a mirror or getting dressed, as well as a fear of disapproving stares or possible targeted acts of hatred, sometimes avoiding social situations and public restrooms entirely, are only a few of the predicaments which many LGBTQ people are often forced to endure. Despite the fact that these issues occur on such a large scale, many cisgender and/or heterosexual people are still unaware of the anxieties regularly experienced by people who identify with non-binary gender. Inexperience and lack of knowledge drives most people to feed into an exclusive and “gender normative” mass culture, which currently dominates many aspects of American society. This is partially due to the underrepresentation of minority groups, who are often subjugated by the media and other institutions that do not represent marginalized populations such as the LGBTQ community. This causes society as a whole to be unable to recognize that gender and sexuality are subjective and personal aspects of identity, not radical attacks on the beliefs of others.
False precepts cause LGBTQ people to be victims of targeted acts of prejudiced hatred and violence. The New York Times reports that in America specifically, “L.G.B.T. people are [now] twice as likely to be targeted as African-Americans, and the rate of hate crimes against them has surpassed that of crimes against Jews” (The New York Times, 2016). Furthermore, with about 84% of LGBTQ youth reporting being bullied, and another 64% of LBGTQ youth admitting they feel unsafe in public schools, it is now imperative for all people to increase their education and awareness about the LGBTQ community (LGBT Bullying Statistics). To accomplish this, gender-neutral language must be incorporated into the media and mainstream society. This will educate people and help us progress towards a safer and more inclusive culture where all people feel safe, represented, and visible.
Gender identity does not exist within two implicitly defined categories of male and female; rather, it exists as a spectrum where any given person falls between different extremities of masculinity and femininity. Although people range variably on the spectrum, many do not entertain the idea of multiple gender identities because it challenges their schema of what gender and sexuality means in mass culture. Mainly, people tend to have difficulties referring to the androgynous or ambiguous nature non gender-binary individuals. A cisgender person is someone “whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex” (OED). And in turn, a non-cisgender (or non-gender binary) person can be defined as someone whose gender does not coincide with their biological sex (i.e. transgender, genderqueer). Although the LGBTQ community is composed primarily of people with different non-heterosexual identities (lesbian, gay, bisexual), alternative gender identities are also included in the community (transgender, genderqueer, non-gender binary etc). The term “community” itself is a general term to define the human connection, common culture, and support system shared by LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) people.
In our society, an individual’s ability to explain and understand gender is limited by our language. Mainstream culture currently lacks the proper language and pronouns to attach to other gender identities; so many people simply do not understand people who identify with non-binary gender, because there is no language to dignify it. A theory regarding the “bound[s]” and “restraints of language,” entitled the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, reflects this by stating “an individual's thoughts and actions are determined by the language [or languages] that individual speaks” (linguist.org). Moreover, the hypothesis states, “all human thoughts and actions are bound by the restraints of language” (linguistlist.org). This means that people can only recognize and understand things on a deeper level once they have the language and words to describe it. Therefore, by providing people with “they” (a gender neutral pronoun) and “ze”(a gender free pronoun), unaware cisgender and/or heterosexual people have a word that they can use to respectfully address and refer to transgender or gender queer individuals.
From a young age, children are taught to understand both concepts of male and female as being social norms. By the age of four, most children have already formed a “stable sense of their gender identity,” which is then reinforced by specific “learn[ed] gender role behavior[s]” (American Academy of Pediatrics). As time progresses, current generations age and new ones appear, with a blanket expectation of a cisgender identity and the idea that these learned gender role behaviors are socially normal and accepted as ‘right’ and ‘healthy’. Our current society tells children that they must act a specific way in order to reflect their sex and associated gender identity. But what happens when LGBTQ children are unaware that there is something outside of being a boy who “acts like a boy” or a girl who “acts like a girl? Those who fall outside cisgender vocabulary feel alienated and confused because there is no role model or institution telling them that being “different” is not unnatural or wrong. Seeing adults (in real life or the media) who identify outside social norms, or otherwise use inclusive and tolerant speech, would be enough to make non-cisgender kids feel validated and recognized. But sadly, with only about 4% of all major recurring characters on TV being lesbian, gay, or bisexual (and even fewer being transgender or genderqueer), representation of marginalized and minority populations in the media continues to be a pressing issue (GLAAD).
Due to the millennial generation’s upbringing in the information age, society is beginning to see more drastic expressions of previously taboo topics. Discussions of gender, sexuality, and sex are regularly “on the table,” so to speak. The hope is that new, reformed language habits will follow these newfound gender expressions; and we will no longer need to assume all people must be male or female. Rather than using “he” or “she” pronouns, replacing either with “they” as the default pronoun establishes a gender neutral social norm and limits the assumption of someone’s identity based on their physical appearance. Using “they/them” before “he/she” addresses all cisgender and LGBTQ people alike as one, instead of creating further illusions of separation in our already divided society. Using the same language for people of differing gender identities sets a precedent for tolerance and awareness, which will help LGBTQ individuals feel safer in their wider communities.
Non-cisgender people need to have their “identities affirmed by other[s]” as all people do, regardless of identity or background (Zimman). Correctly referring to someone through the use of their preferred gender pronoun validates their identity and plays a huge role in fighting back against hate crimes and violence that disproportionately affect the LGBTQ community. Changing your everyday speech affects violence because words can affirm the humanity of another person and preach awareness and tolerance toward different groups of people in society, thereby impacting hate crimes and discrimination.
The push for gender-neutral language and representation of LGBTQ people in the media cannot be achieved while others view the very existence of LGBTQ individuals as a radical protest against gender norms. People often do not recognize the cause for gender-neutral movements because they feel their personal politics are being challenged or offended. It is important to question preconceived ideas of gender and sexuality. We must insist people recognize non-cisgender individuals and use gender-neutral pronouns, even if it makes them uncomfortable or angry.
Despite political counterarguments, someone else’s identity has nothing to do with another person’s politics. Calling a person by their correct name or pronoun is respectful and affirms them as a real person, instead of framing them as an outsider by ignoring their personal preferences. So, instead of protesting the political correctness of gender-neutral language, one should turn their attention to the actual person whom they are addressing, because gay and queer issues are human issues. Beneath the language and politics, these are human beings who deserve human names. In a world where the murder of transgender people is at an all time historical high (Steinmetz), and where Donald Trump (campaigning on a largely xenophobic, misogynistic, sexist, racist platform) has become the president of the United States, there has never been a better time to talk about those less recognized. By using non-inclusive language, you are misgendering LGBTQ people, and thereby telling them they don’t matter and that their identity and feelings are not valid.
Altogether, for people in marginalized communities, the world is already a terrifying place to exist. I believe all people have a democratic right to exercise self-expression, and to feel safe doing so. I will not stay silent as long as another human is being threatened, harassed, or killed simply because they express themselves freely. Our society’s democracy should protect minorities, not diminish them, and incorporating gender-neutral language into society would address the issues of LGBTQ minorities directly. So next time you meet someone who may be different from you, be civil and neutral, or politely ask them how they identify. Once we begin to recognize the humanity behind any name or pronoun, we can start an amicable revolution.
False precepts cause LGBTQ people to be victims of targeted acts of prejudiced hatred and violence. The New York Times reports that in America specifically, “L.G.B.T. people are [now] twice as likely to be targeted as African-Americans, and the rate of hate crimes against them has surpassed that of crimes against Jews” (The New York Times, 2016). Furthermore, with about 84% of LGBTQ youth reporting being bullied, and another 64% of LBGTQ youth admitting they feel unsafe in public schools, it is now imperative for all people to increase their education and awareness about the LGBTQ community (LGBT Bullying Statistics). To accomplish this, gender-neutral language must be incorporated into the media and mainstream society. This will educate people and help us progress towards a safer and more inclusive culture where all people feel safe, represented, and visible.
Gender identity does not exist within two implicitly defined categories of male and female; rather, it exists as a spectrum where any given person falls between different extremities of masculinity and femininity. Although people range variably on the spectrum, many do not entertain the idea of multiple gender identities because it challenges their schema of what gender and sexuality means in mass culture. Mainly, people tend to have difficulties referring to the androgynous or ambiguous nature non gender-binary individuals. A cisgender person is someone “whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex” (OED). And in turn, a non-cisgender (or non-gender binary) person can be defined as someone whose gender does not coincide with their biological sex (i.e. transgender, genderqueer). Although the LGBTQ community is composed primarily of people with different non-heterosexual identities (lesbian, gay, bisexual), alternative gender identities are also included in the community (transgender, genderqueer, non-gender binary etc). The term “community” itself is a general term to define the human connection, common culture, and support system shared by LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) people.
In our society, an individual’s ability to explain and understand gender is limited by our language. Mainstream culture currently lacks the proper language and pronouns to attach to other gender identities; so many people simply do not understand people who identify with non-binary gender, because there is no language to dignify it. A theory regarding the “bound[s]” and “restraints of language,” entitled the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, reflects this by stating “an individual's thoughts and actions are determined by the language [or languages] that individual speaks” (linguist.org). Moreover, the hypothesis states, “all human thoughts and actions are bound by the restraints of language” (linguistlist.org). This means that people can only recognize and understand things on a deeper level once they have the language and words to describe it. Therefore, by providing people with “they” (a gender neutral pronoun) and “ze”(a gender free pronoun), unaware cisgender and/or heterosexual people have a word that they can use to respectfully address and refer to transgender or gender queer individuals.
From a young age, children are taught to understand both concepts of male and female as being social norms. By the age of four, most children have already formed a “stable sense of their gender identity,” which is then reinforced by specific “learn[ed] gender role behavior[s]” (American Academy of Pediatrics). As time progresses, current generations age and new ones appear, with a blanket expectation of a cisgender identity and the idea that these learned gender role behaviors are socially normal and accepted as ‘right’ and ‘healthy’. Our current society tells children that they must act a specific way in order to reflect their sex and associated gender identity. But what happens when LGBTQ children are unaware that there is something outside of being a boy who “acts like a boy” or a girl who “acts like a girl? Those who fall outside cisgender vocabulary feel alienated and confused because there is no role model or institution telling them that being “different” is not unnatural or wrong. Seeing adults (in real life or the media) who identify outside social norms, or otherwise use inclusive and tolerant speech, would be enough to make non-cisgender kids feel validated and recognized. But sadly, with only about 4% of all major recurring characters on TV being lesbian, gay, or bisexual (and even fewer being transgender or genderqueer), representation of marginalized and minority populations in the media continues to be a pressing issue (GLAAD).
Due to the millennial generation’s upbringing in the information age, society is beginning to see more drastic expressions of previously taboo topics. Discussions of gender, sexuality, and sex are regularly “on the table,” so to speak. The hope is that new, reformed language habits will follow these newfound gender expressions; and we will no longer need to assume all people must be male or female. Rather than using “he” or “she” pronouns, replacing either with “they” as the default pronoun establishes a gender neutral social norm and limits the assumption of someone’s identity based on their physical appearance. Using “they/them” before “he/she” addresses all cisgender and LGBTQ people alike as one, instead of creating further illusions of separation in our already divided society. Using the same language for people of differing gender identities sets a precedent for tolerance and awareness, which will help LGBTQ individuals feel safer in their wider communities.
Non-cisgender people need to have their “identities affirmed by other[s]” as all people do, regardless of identity or background (Zimman). Correctly referring to someone through the use of their preferred gender pronoun validates their identity and plays a huge role in fighting back against hate crimes and violence that disproportionately affect the LGBTQ community. Changing your everyday speech affects violence because words can affirm the humanity of another person and preach awareness and tolerance toward different groups of people in society, thereby impacting hate crimes and discrimination.
The push for gender-neutral language and representation of LGBTQ people in the media cannot be achieved while others view the very existence of LGBTQ individuals as a radical protest against gender norms. People often do not recognize the cause for gender-neutral movements because they feel their personal politics are being challenged or offended. It is important to question preconceived ideas of gender and sexuality. We must insist people recognize non-cisgender individuals and use gender-neutral pronouns, even if it makes them uncomfortable or angry.
Despite political counterarguments, someone else’s identity has nothing to do with another person’s politics. Calling a person by their correct name or pronoun is respectful and affirms them as a real person, instead of framing them as an outsider by ignoring their personal preferences. So, instead of protesting the political correctness of gender-neutral language, one should turn their attention to the actual person whom they are addressing, because gay and queer issues are human issues. Beneath the language and politics, these are human beings who deserve human names. In a world where the murder of transgender people is at an all time historical high (Steinmetz), and where Donald Trump (campaigning on a largely xenophobic, misogynistic, sexist, racist platform) has become the president of the United States, there has never been a better time to talk about those less recognized. By using non-inclusive language, you are misgendering LGBTQ people, and thereby telling them they don’t matter and that their identity and feelings are not valid.
Altogether, for people in marginalized communities, the world is already a terrifying place to exist. I believe all people have a democratic right to exercise self-expression, and to feel safe doing so. I will not stay silent as long as another human is being threatened, harassed, or killed simply because they express themselves freely. Our society’s democracy should protect minorities, not diminish them, and incorporating gender-neutral language into society would address the issues of LGBTQ minorities directly. So next time you meet someone who may be different from you, be civil and neutral, or politely ask them how they identify. Once we begin to recognize the humanity behind any name or pronoun, we can start an amicable revolution.
"Ask A Linguist FAQ." Ask A Linguist FAQ: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Indiana University Department of Linguistics, n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.
"cisgender, adj. and n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, March 2017. Web. 23 March 2017.
Darr, Brandon, and Tyler Kibbey. "Pronouns and Thoughts on Neutrality: Gender Concerns in Modern Grammar." Pursuit - The Journal of Undergraduate Research at the University of Tennessee 7.1 (2016): n. pag. University of Tennessee - Knoxville, Apr. 2016. Web. 4 Nov. 2016.
"Gender Identity Development in Children." HealthyChildren.org. American Academy of Pediatrics, 21 Nov. 2015. Web. 01 Dec. 2016.
GenderqueerID. "Genderqueer History." Genderqueer History. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.
"GLAAD - Where We Are on TV Report - 2015." GLAAD. N.p., 20 Jan. 2016. Web. 04 Dec. 2016.
"LGBT Bullying Statistics." No Bullying. N.p., 7 Nov. 2016. Web. 7 Nov. 2016.
Mykhyalyshyn, Haeyoun Park and Iaryna. "L.G.B.T. People Are More Likely to Be Targets of Hate Crimes Than Any Other Minority Group." The New York Times. 16 June 2016. Web. 4 Feb. 2017.
Steinmetz, Katy. "Why Transgender People Are Being Murdered at a Historic Rate." Time, 17 Aug. 2015. Web. 07 Nov. 2016.
Zimman, Lal. "Trans Pronoun FAQ, Part 1." Medium Trans Talk. N.p., 29 Aug. 2016. Web. 4 Nov. 2016
Cultural Identity and Dining in
“Fish Cheeks
“Fish Cheeks
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Megan Martino is a first year student from Novato, California and an English major at SF State. She loves to engage in discussion about literature and movies, and is a very enthusiastic person in general.
She also loves learning about Zen Buddhism, recently having read a multitude of books that piqued her interest; she only wants to learn more! She admires the dignified and disciplined practice, and sees new benefits from the philosophy everyday. As soon as possible, Megan plans to tour Australia in a modified four-door, with a mattress where the backseats belong and a storage rack on the roof. If you care to, you should ask her about her Rolling Green House™ idea; she's really excited about it!
COMMENT FROM GTA, SAVINA PALMERIN:
Megan’s essay is a testament to both the revision process and the rhetorical analysis genre. She built a strong foundation for her essay by paying close attention to the rhetorical moves in the text and researching Tan’s background. Megan incorporated ethos, pathos and logos in order to build on her arguments. Megan was able to maneuver the essay with ease as we built a community in our classroom to have open discussions about race issues in America. She also trusted her own voice and explored what she noticed in the text, thus making what she noticed an important element in writing this essay. This, along with Megan’s attention to organization made for a comprehensive analysis of Amy Tan’s “Fish Cheeks.”
Megan Martino is a first year student from Novato, California and an English major at SF State. She loves to engage in discussion about literature and movies, and is a very enthusiastic person in general.
She also loves learning about Zen Buddhism, recently having read a multitude of books that piqued her interest; she only wants to learn more! She admires the dignified and disciplined practice, and sees new benefits from the philosophy everyday. As soon as possible, Megan plans to tour Australia in a modified four-door, with a mattress where the backseats belong and a storage rack on the roof. If you care to, you should ask her about her Rolling Green House™ idea; she's really excited about it!
COMMENT FROM GTA, SAVINA PALMERIN:
Megan’s essay is a testament to both the revision process and the rhetorical analysis genre. She built a strong foundation for her essay by paying close attention to the rhetorical moves in the text and researching Tan’s background. Megan incorporated ethos, pathos and logos in order to build on her arguments. Megan was able to maneuver the essay with ease as we built a community in our classroom to have open discussions about race issues in America. She also trusted her own voice and explored what she noticed in the text, thus making what she noticed an important element in writing this essay. This, along with Megan’s attention to organization made for a comprehensive analysis of Amy Tan’s “Fish Cheeks.”
Amy Tan’s work often centers on the lives of Asian Americans in the San Francisco Bay Area and delves into the confusion and anxiety that inevitably results from the mixing of cultural identities. Tan often uses her own experience as an Asian American to reveal the difficulties and arguably the impossibility of assimilation. “Fish Cheeks” is an autobiographical short story set in 1966, “...the winter [she] turned fourteen.” Historically, the 1960’s was a time full of civil unrest—when civil rights leaders organized marches and protests to fight against persistent racism and misogyny in the United States. This time of cultural and ethical contention is the backdrop for Tan’s coming of age story. As a fourteen year old, Tan knew she was different, but that did not stop her from attempting to immerse herself in American culture. However, her ability to assimilate was challenged when she joined her family and a traditional white American family for Christmas dinner. Her short story, “Fish Cheeks,” utilizes that holiday dinner scene to examine the divide that exists between culturally diverse families as well as the divide that exists between first and second-generation immigrants, specifically mothers and daughters.
Tan uses vivid details about “...the strange menu” her mother creates and the eating habits of the dinner guests in order to juxtapose the two families present at the meal. Food and dining rituals can define a culture, so when Tan uses language of disgust to describe the food her mother serves, it is as if she is disavowing her own culture through a rejection of her mother’s menu and her family’s eating practices. Tan describes the prawns as “fleshy” and the rock cod as “slimy” with “bulging fish eyes.” She seems to be adopting the disgust exhibited by Americans when they contact this cuisine. She further describes the mannerisms of her relatives and that of the white family, showing how her Chinese family grabs at their feast while the white family patiently waits for the dishes to be passed to them. Sensitive readers are aware that the mannerisms of the Chinese family are not a sign of rudeness but are merely a result of distinct cultural development. However, the characters in the story find it difficult to accept practices that contrast with their norms. Tan captures this sentiment simply: “Robert grimaced.” Robert, the minister’s son and Tan’s love interest, does not voice his discomfort for fear he may insult his hosts. Yet, young Amy Tan recognizes the look and feels heartbroken and ashamed of her heritage.
Tan knows her guests were uncomfortable and believes it is because they find her culture crude; she blames her heritage rather than the unaccepting attitudes of the minister’s family. The minister, Robert symbolizes white American society as a whole. His inability to embrace another culture represents America’s rejection of alternative identities on a larger scale. Although he eats the dinner prepared for him and his family, he is not grateful for the meal. This symbolizes the reluctant tolerance of American families, and the xenophobic undertones that persist, which generate national social tensions. Robert’s grimace is an example of this. While he never explicitly states his disgust with the Chinese meal, his small, ungrateful gesture indicates his intolerance of the Chinese culture.
Robert’s rejection is clearly difficult for Tan, and her feelings of alienation only worsen as the evening progresses. When Tan recalls, “I was stunned into silence for the rest of the night,” it captures how with each exposed cultural difference, Tan becomes torn between the two sides. However, by the end of the story, she is able to feel gratitude for her mother and her culture. Her final line, “For Christmas Eve that year, she had chosen all my favorite foods,” reveals how Tan finally embraces her own identity, which she had rejected throughout the meal. Because she was preoccupied with her dinner guests’ repulsion, she did not take one moment to enjoy the meal her mother had prepared especially for her. The grotesque descriptions in the first paragraph allude to the fact that Tan is disgusted with the meal in the presence of another culture, but the last line indicates that Tan savors such a meal when safe within her own culture.
While she loves her family and culture, she also knows they are being judged for their dining rituals. She recalls how, at the time, she thought her family was being ignorant. But as she grew older, she slowly realized her family’s behavior was simply a refusal to reject their culture in order to make unaccepting people more comfortable. Her mother not only recognizes her daughter’s distress during the meal, she uses it as an opportunity to connect. She tells Tan that when she was growing up, she could not fathom ever being as culturally involved as her relatives. Yet, Tan’s mother eventually realized that the principle of culture and family is more important than any individual’s opinion. Preserving family traditions is what keeps culture alive, and the act of preservation brings families closer together. She tells her daughter that although she wants to look American on the outside, her roots will always be Chinese. As a fourteen year old, Tan doesn’t fully understand her mother’s sentiment, but she matures to discover the truth of it, a theme she continues to explore it in her writing to this day.
“Fish Cheeks” is exemplary of problems that are found within every culture that has immigrated to Eurocentric nations. Allowing yourself to be immersed in your own or another culture can be surprising and rewarding, similar to how Tan feels when her mother promises that one day she would reclaim their tradition and heritage. As a grown woman, Tan writes this story as a social commentary that explains the impact that a lack of cultural acceptance has on individuals, particularly children. Tan is able to artfully explain her personal struggle as a Chinese American without explicitly condemning the white culture that rejects her. That ability allows her to inform and connect with readers about existing immigrant struggles, reminding us to be compassionate and tolerant of cultural differences.
Tan uses vivid details about “...the strange menu” her mother creates and the eating habits of the dinner guests in order to juxtapose the two families present at the meal. Food and dining rituals can define a culture, so when Tan uses language of disgust to describe the food her mother serves, it is as if she is disavowing her own culture through a rejection of her mother’s menu and her family’s eating practices. Tan describes the prawns as “fleshy” and the rock cod as “slimy” with “bulging fish eyes.” She seems to be adopting the disgust exhibited by Americans when they contact this cuisine. She further describes the mannerisms of her relatives and that of the white family, showing how her Chinese family grabs at their feast while the white family patiently waits for the dishes to be passed to them. Sensitive readers are aware that the mannerisms of the Chinese family are not a sign of rudeness but are merely a result of distinct cultural development. However, the characters in the story find it difficult to accept practices that contrast with their norms. Tan captures this sentiment simply: “Robert grimaced.” Robert, the minister’s son and Tan’s love interest, does not voice his discomfort for fear he may insult his hosts. Yet, young Amy Tan recognizes the look and feels heartbroken and ashamed of her heritage.
Tan knows her guests were uncomfortable and believes it is because they find her culture crude; she blames her heritage rather than the unaccepting attitudes of the minister’s family. The minister, Robert symbolizes white American society as a whole. His inability to embrace another culture represents America’s rejection of alternative identities on a larger scale. Although he eats the dinner prepared for him and his family, he is not grateful for the meal. This symbolizes the reluctant tolerance of American families, and the xenophobic undertones that persist, which generate national social tensions. Robert’s grimace is an example of this. While he never explicitly states his disgust with the Chinese meal, his small, ungrateful gesture indicates his intolerance of the Chinese culture.
Robert’s rejection is clearly difficult for Tan, and her feelings of alienation only worsen as the evening progresses. When Tan recalls, “I was stunned into silence for the rest of the night,” it captures how with each exposed cultural difference, Tan becomes torn between the two sides. However, by the end of the story, she is able to feel gratitude for her mother and her culture. Her final line, “For Christmas Eve that year, she had chosen all my favorite foods,” reveals how Tan finally embraces her own identity, which she had rejected throughout the meal. Because she was preoccupied with her dinner guests’ repulsion, she did not take one moment to enjoy the meal her mother had prepared especially for her. The grotesque descriptions in the first paragraph allude to the fact that Tan is disgusted with the meal in the presence of another culture, but the last line indicates that Tan savors such a meal when safe within her own culture.
While she loves her family and culture, she also knows they are being judged for their dining rituals. She recalls how, at the time, she thought her family was being ignorant. But as she grew older, she slowly realized her family’s behavior was simply a refusal to reject their culture in order to make unaccepting people more comfortable. Her mother not only recognizes her daughter’s distress during the meal, she uses it as an opportunity to connect. She tells Tan that when she was growing up, she could not fathom ever being as culturally involved as her relatives. Yet, Tan’s mother eventually realized that the principle of culture and family is more important than any individual’s opinion. Preserving family traditions is what keeps culture alive, and the act of preservation brings families closer together. She tells her daughter that although she wants to look American on the outside, her roots will always be Chinese. As a fourteen year old, Tan doesn’t fully understand her mother’s sentiment, but she matures to discover the truth of it, a theme she continues to explore it in her writing to this day.
“Fish Cheeks” is exemplary of problems that are found within every culture that has immigrated to Eurocentric nations. Allowing yourself to be immersed in your own or another culture can be surprising and rewarding, similar to how Tan feels when her mother promises that one day she would reclaim their tradition and heritage. As a grown woman, Tan writes this story as a social commentary that explains the impact that a lack of cultural acceptance has on individuals, particularly children. Tan is able to artfully explain her personal struggle as a Chinese American without explicitly condemning the white culture that rejects her. That ability allows her to inform and connect with readers about existing immigrant struggles, reminding us to be compassionate and tolerant of cultural differences.
Tan, Amy. “Fish Cheeks.” The Opposite of Fate: A Book of Musings. Putnam. New York, NY. 2003. Originally published in Seventeen magazine, 1987.
Jan Michaela Yee
Down to a Trio
Down to a Trio
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Jan Michaela Yee is a first-year student at SF State. She was born in the Philippines and moved to Hayward, CA with her family at age five. Ever since she was little, she has loved to draw because every stroke of her pencil gives her a freeing feeling, which makes her happy. Music is also a huge part of her life as she has learned to play many string instruments, such as violin and guitar, which brings the people she loves closer together. During her free time, she enjoys doing various activities; it usually depends on how she feels that day. Whether watching anime, playing with her dog, or spending a day playing video games, boredom is Jan’s kryptonite. Her many hobbies teach her about the world, and applying that knowledge to socialize with different kinds of people is what she values the most.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, OMAR MARK ALI:
For their first major essay in English 104, students were asked to tell a story about themselves. This can be intimidating, especially at the start of a semester, but as we brainstorm and draft, their writing always starts to take on a deeper meaning, and in sharing these stories through peer-reviews, we all start to feel a little closer. Michaela tackled this assignment head-on, not only telling us about the very personal experience of her mother’s passing, but also making the reader feel a part of the story through a display of skills, such as specific details, dialogue, and relating her personal thoughts. Throughout, you are emotionally moved, not just by the content, but by the very words on the page.
Jan Michaela Yee is a first-year student at SF State. She was born in the Philippines and moved to Hayward, CA with her family at age five. Ever since she was little, she has loved to draw because every stroke of her pencil gives her a freeing feeling, which makes her happy. Music is also a huge part of her life as she has learned to play many string instruments, such as violin and guitar, which brings the people she loves closer together. During her free time, she enjoys doing various activities; it usually depends on how she feels that day. Whether watching anime, playing with her dog, or spending a day playing video games, boredom is Jan’s kryptonite. Her many hobbies teach her about the world, and applying that knowledge to socialize with different kinds of people is what she values the most.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, OMAR MARK ALI:
For their first major essay in English 104, students were asked to tell a story about themselves. This can be intimidating, especially at the start of a semester, but as we brainstorm and draft, their writing always starts to take on a deeper meaning, and in sharing these stories through peer-reviews, we all start to feel a little closer. Michaela tackled this assignment head-on, not only telling us about the very personal experience of her mother’s passing, but also making the reader feel a part of the story through a display of skills, such as specific details, dialogue, and relating her personal thoughts. Throughout, you are emotionally moved, not just by the content, but by the very words on the page.
Life used to be simple before she became ill. I’d come home from school to a sweet and savory smell of adobo still lingering in the air. Every inch of the house was alive with flavor swimming through the massive open doors and windows. It wasn’t her hugs but her smell of sweat and soy sauce that made me feel at home. When she wiped her forehead with the towel hanging from her shoulder, she’d ask me, “Mikee, how was school?” I’d reply with just “Okay” and that was that. I wished I could have said more.
On weekends, she’d take me to hunt for adventures. Garage sales would pile up in the Penny Saver on Saturdays, and we had to be there early to get all the “good stuff”. I was a third grader, so homework wasn’t a problem on weekends. We’d spend hours together driving around streets I’d never been to before. It was difficult to even remember where we were, but we always found our way back home together.
I spent so much time with her, it feels like a blur. As a child, I never thought about how much time we spent with each other, or how much fun the time between brunch and afternoons felt. When she’d ask if I wanted something to eat, I’d always get the french fries I wanted. One day, we were driving home and she casually asked me, “Mikee, what are you going to do when I die?” At eight years old, that wasn’t something I’d thought about often or something I’d be able to answer easily. I softly replied, “I’d be sad.” She changed the subject after that, and I didn’t realize how serious her question was. Those memories still feel like yesterday.
My mom’s first few days in the hospital are days I hardly remember. Our time going to garage sales and car rides was all I thought about as I sat in her hospital room. Nobody told me why she was there.
I was simply told, “She’s sick.” I thought cancer was like a cold - the type of sick that was gone after a few days. As time went on, I found out that wasn’t the case. One day she’d look completely fine and the next she’d contort with pain. That year, we spent a lot of time together while she was sick in bed. It was difficult for our family to be surrounded by worry and grief most of the time.
A year later, my father told my sister and I that our mother was getting better, feeling stronger and healthier. I kept hearing “Breast Cancer Survivor” and I proudly referred to my mom as one. I thought I was beginning to understand her condition, and the next few stages of cancer confused me. I decided to be less observant and ask less questions about what this illness was because my heart fell apart every time she went back to the hospital. I didn’t want to know.
Though her condition was limiting, we continued to have our adventures. Instead of garage sales, she’d take me with her to the hospital for check-ups. There, we talked about my hopes and dreams, and she advised me on situations I might encounter one day. We met patients and nurses whom we both considered friends. We had happy times there that almost made things seem normal again. The next couple of years were like a rollercoaster ride; but every ride has an end.
It was almost midnight and the red flashing lights reflected on the walls of our house. Her health was worsening; the tumor had spread throughout her body. I had never seen my dad cry before. He stood in my bedroom doorway and tried to break the news as gently as he could. “Mama’s dead.” he said. It was too much to handle. I hugged my dad with my tears falling on his shirt, and he led me into her bedroom. I pretended not to see the gurney set up in the living room. My sister was kneeled on the ground next to my mom’s bed, and I stood there with tears in my eyes trying to believe every moment was a dream.
The next morning when I got up my mom wasn’t home. My dad was already awake and told me she’d been taken somewhere. He said she was in a better place and everything was going to be okay. But I wouldn’t listen. Instead, I pretended last night had never happened; I somehow convinced myself that my mom was out buying groceries, just as she normally would, and was just taking awhile to come home. It took a while to believe she was really gone.
Not having a mom in my life changed everything. The smell I’d come home to wasn’t as aromatic as it used to be; holidays were busier with my sister and I doing all the shopping; the family dinner table was set for three, instead of four. It was hard to endure the days we used to celebrate together: my parent’s wedding anniversary, my mom’s birthday, and especially Mother’s Day because we were all reminded of that night. The only thing that kept us going was that we still had each other and felt mom was with us in spirit.
One night, I couldn’t sleep. I closed my eyes and when I was finally about to enter REM state, I felt a stroke on my forehead. My eyes remained closed, but I began to see a clear image of what was happening. I was in a meadow, under a shady tree. I subconsciously knew I was dreaming, but I still wanted to know what was going on; and looking straight up into the blue sky, there she was. I was lying on my mom’s lap, and she was stroking the hair off of my face, just as she had when I used to take afternoon naps. I asked her, “Ma, what’s happening?” She didn’t answer my question, only replied with her tender voice to go to sleep. Her presence felt so real - I could feel her spirit in my room trying to comfort me. Just as I was beginning to make sense of what was happening, everything began to blur and darken, and my mom started to leave, walking toward a door of shining light as bright as heaven. I asked her where she was going, and she gently replied, “It’s okay Mikee, just go to sleep. I’ll be right here if you need me.” The second she closed the door I woke up. I didn’t quite know how to react. I was in shock, the tears falling from my eyes.
Months later, I continued to have dreams about her. Some were sad, but the most of the time we had fun. I realized that even though she and our memories had passed, she would always be within me. One night we would be racing through a sea of monsters, and in the next dream we’d be shopping in the biggest mall I could imagine. Our adventures lasted every night I went to bed, and I knew she was looking out for me during the day.
As the years went by, our family trio was more than okay. Though the holidays were still hard, each year being together felt more comforting than the last. Our birthdays were celebrated with more memories than gifts. On weekends, we’d watch movies together and play with our dog. I’d come home from school, and my dad would ask me, “How was school?” I’d tell him all about my tests, my orchestra class, and even one thing I’d learned that day. The house began to have that sweet and savory aroma again; only now it was the three of us making the meal alone.
On weekends, she’d take me to hunt for adventures. Garage sales would pile up in the Penny Saver on Saturdays, and we had to be there early to get all the “good stuff”. I was a third grader, so homework wasn’t a problem on weekends. We’d spend hours together driving around streets I’d never been to before. It was difficult to even remember where we were, but we always found our way back home together.
I spent so much time with her, it feels like a blur. As a child, I never thought about how much time we spent with each other, or how much fun the time between brunch and afternoons felt. When she’d ask if I wanted something to eat, I’d always get the french fries I wanted. One day, we were driving home and she casually asked me, “Mikee, what are you going to do when I die?” At eight years old, that wasn’t something I’d thought about often or something I’d be able to answer easily. I softly replied, “I’d be sad.” She changed the subject after that, and I didn’t realize how serious her question was. Those memories still feel like yesterday.
My mom’s first few days in the hospital are days I hardly remember. Our time going to garage sales and car rides was all I thought about as I sat in her hospital room. Nobody told me why she was there.
I was simply told, “She’s sick.” I thought cancer was like a cold - the type of sick that was gone after a few days. As time went on, I found out that wasn’t the case. One day she’d look completely fine and the next she’d contort with pain. That year, we spent a lot of time together while she was sick in bed. It was difficult for our family to be surrounded by worry and grief most of the time.
A year later, my father told my sister and I that our mother was getting better, feeling stronger and healthier. I kept hearing “Breast Cancer Survivor” and I proudly referred to my mom as one. I thought I was beginning to understand her condition, and the next few stages of cancer confused me. I decided to be less observant and ask less questions about what this illness was because my heart fell apart every time she went back to the hospital. I didn’t want to know.
Though her condition was limiting, we continued to have our adventures. Instead of garage sales, she’d take me with her to the hospital for check-ups. There, we talked about my hopes and dreams, and she advised me on situations I might encounter one day. We met patients and nurses whom we both considered friends. We had happy times there that almost made things seem normal again. The next couple of years were like a rollercoaster ride; but every ride has an end.
It was almost midnight and the red flashing lights reflected on the walls of our house. Her health was worsening; the tumor had spread throughout her body. I had never seen my dad cry before. He stood in my bedroom doorway and tried to break the news as gently as he could. “Mama’s dead.” he said. It was too much to handle. I hugged my dad with my tears falling on his shirt, and he led me into her bedroom. I pretended not to see the gurney set up in the living room. My sister was kneeled on the ground next to my mom’s bed, and I stood there with tears in my eyes trying to believe every moment was a dream.
The next morning when I got up my mom wasn’t home. My dad was already awake and told me she’d been taken somewhere. He said she was in a better place and everything was going to be okay. But I wouldn’t listen. Instead, I pretended last night had never happened; I somehow convinced myself that my mom was out buying groceries, just as she normally would, and was just taking awhile to come home. It took a while to believe she was really gone.
Not having a mom in my life changed everything. The smell I’d come home to wasn’t as aromatic as it used to be; holidays were busier with my sister and I doing all the shopping; the family dinner table was set for three, instead of four. It was hard to endure the days we used to celebrate together: my parent’s wedding anniversary, my mom’s birthday, and especially Mother’s Day because we were all reminded of that night. The only thing that kept us going was that we still had each other and felt mom was with us in spirit.
One night, I couldn’t sleep. I closed my eyes and when I was finally about to enter REM state, I felt a stroke on my forehead. My eyes remained closed, but I began to see a clear image of what was happening. I was in a meadow, under a shady tree. I subconsciously knew I was dreaming, but I still wanted to know what was going on; and looking straight up into the blue sky, there she was. I was lying on my mom’s lap, and she was stroking the hair off of my face, just as she had when I used to take afternoon naps. I asked her, “Ma, what’s happening?” She didn’t answer my question, only replied with her tender voice to go to sleep. Her presence felt so real - I could feel her spirit in my room trying to comfort me. Just as I was beginning to make sense of what was happening, everything began to blur and darken, and my mom started to leave, walking toward a door of shining light as bright as heaven. I asked her where she was going, and she gently replied, “It’s okay Mikee, just go to sleep. I’ll be right here if you need me.” The second she closed the door I woke up. I didn’t quite know how to react. I was in shock, the tears falling from my eyes.
Months later, I continued to have dreams about her. Some were sad, but the most of the time we had fun. I realized that even though she and our memories had passed, she would always be within me. One night we would be racing through a sea of monsters, and in the next dream we’d be shopping in the biggest mall I could imagine. Our adventures lasted every night I went to bed, and I knew she was looking out for me during the day.
As the years went by, our family trio was more than okay. Though the holidays were still hard, each year being together felt more comforting than the last. Our birthdays were celebrated with more memories than gifts. On weekends, we’d watch movies together and play with our dog. I’d come home from school, and my dad would ask me, “How was school?” I’d tell him all about my tests, my orchestra class, and even one thing I’d learned that day. The house began to have that sweet and savory aroma again; only now it was the three of us making the meal alone.
Nimiksah Mahajan
Benefits of Bilingual Education
Benefits of Bilingual Education
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Nimiksha Mahajan is an International Student from India majoring in International Business, with a passion for literature. It is her dream to combine her knack for business with her love for reading and writing and create a successful business one day. She is fascinated by diversity and guided by curiosity. She wants to travel the world - not in the “a fancy world tour” kind of way but in the “I lived like a local” kind of way. And she wants to learn all possible languages (currently fluent in three and on her way to mastering French) and musical instruments (mostly guitar, piano and violin). She is an absolute adrenaline junkie who loves roller coasters, adventure sports and basically anything with a mind-boggling thrill. While she lives for the outdoors, she is equally fond of the in-doors and will take a hot chocolate with a good book and the sun streaming through the window any day. She not only loves reading but also writing, poems in particular. They are her way of expressing her view of the world. And she absolutely loves pineapple on my pizza!
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, SARA FELDER:
Nimiksha provides a detailed argument advocating bilingual education, which in her view offers the most effective method to teach English to non-native speakers, while at the same time, empowers the immigrant community. A beneficiary of bilingual education herself as a native Hindi speaker, born and raised in India, Nimiksha’s perspective as an international student adds a vital voice to the issue. Our English 114 class embraced the theme of “Language and Social Justice,” and this essay, which went through a couple of drafts and peer review, completed the research unit where students picked a topic situated in the intersection of language and social justice. I was inspired to see Nimiksha’s clear writing, strong evidence, and fearless use of the counter-argument become itself a testimony to bilingual education and the benefits of speaking more than one language. We need her voice right now more than ever.
Nimiksha Mahajan is an International Student from India majoring in International Business, with a passion for literature. It is her dream to combine her knack for business with her love for reading and writing and create a successful business one day. She is fascinated by diversity and guided by curiosity. She wants to travel the world - not in the “a fancy world tour” kind of way but in the “I lived like a local” kind of way. And she wants to learn all possible languages (currently fluent in three and on her way to mastering French) and musical instruments (mostly guitar, piano and violin). She is an absolute adrenaline junkie who loves roller coasters, adventure sports and basically anything with a mind-boggling thrill. While she lives for the outdoors, she is equally fond of the in-doors and will take a hot chocolate with a good book and the sun streaming through the window any day. She not only loves reading but also writing, poems in particular. They are her way of expressing her view of the world. And she absolutely loves pineapple on my pizza!
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, SARA FELDER:
Nimiksha provides a detailed argument advocating bilingual education, which in her view offers the most effective method to teach English to non-native speakers, while at the same time, empowers the immigrant community. A beneficiary of bilingual education herself as a native Hindi speaker, born and raised in India, Nimiksha’s perspective as an international student adds a vital voice to the issue. Our English 114 class embraced the theme of “Language and Social Justice,” and this essay, which went through a couple of drafts and peer review, completed the research unit where students picked a topic situated in the intersection of language and social justice. I was inspired to see Nimiksha’s clear writing, strong evidence, and fearless use of the counter-argument become itself a testimony to bilingual education and the benefits of speaking more than one language. We need her voice right now more than ever.
The United States is a nation of immigrants founded by colonists of various nationalities, cultures and linguistic backgrounds. Today four hundred and thirty languages are spoken or signed in this culturally diverse country. English dominates the academic curriculum, often eclipsing other languages. Professors Rosemary Henze and Kathyrn A. Davis argue in their essay “Authenticity and Identity: Lesson from Indigenous Language Education” that “In the realm of education, the United States has a history of suppressing the active use of non-English languages for the purpose of promoting assimilation of the speakers” (Haynes). Language loss is a big issue today as more and more speakers are losing fluency in their native languages, with the linguistic gap between generations increasing. A possible solution to this problem is the adoption of bilingual education curriculum in schools. Bilingual education is a teaching pedagogy where academic content is taught in two languages, one native and one secondary language. This education system does not prioritize one dominant language in linguistic learning. These programs assist non-native speakers to become proficient in English, while at the same time learning and retaining their native language. Bilingual education has several benefits, which help empower immigrant communities. It presents an opportunity to adapt in a foreign culture, while keeping in touch with their linguistic heritage. Apart from this, bilingual education also helps students build better cognitive skills. While many object to this pedagogy and prefer alternate styles of instruction, a bilingual education imparts a broad spectrum of knowledge fulfilling the intended objectives of our education system. With the help of various research statistics and facts, this paper intends to convey how bilingual education programs help non-native speakers to adapt and succeed in various ways.
Bilingual education facilitates adaptation by improving the non-native student’s academic skills. Students with stronger academic skill are often more confident about themselves and have a better chance at adapting to their new environment. With this background, they often feel like they are capable of learning new things and are more open to adjusting into the community. An eight-year study conducted between 1984 to 1991 of the Longitudinal Study of Structured English Immersion Strategy, Early-Exit and Late-Exit Programs for Language-Minority Children, validated by the National Academy of Sciences says that “those students who received more native language instruction for a longer period not only performed better academically, but also acquired English language skills at the same rate as those students who were taught only in English.” (education.stateuniversity.com) Also, a 2004 study by psychologist Ellen Bialystok and Michelle Martin-Rhee proved that “bilinguals seem to be more adept than monolinguals at solving certain kinds of mental puzzles” (Bhattacharjee). This suggests that a bilingual education enhances all students’ learning abilities, while also dismantling barriers between different cultures.
This teaching method often assists in bridging the gap between different communities by improving a child’s cognitive skills. Cognitive psychologists Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky define cognition as “the mental activity and behavior that allows us to understand the world” (Piaget and Vygotsky). When the brain hears or sees a word, it starts conjuring possible outcomes before the entire context is heard. The sound of a word is broken down by the brain, facilitating it to guess the word even before it is completed by activating different words that match the signal. For instance, when one hears “to”, words like “towards” and “tonight” automatically come to their mind. For bilingual students, this activation extends to two different languages resulting in quick and better interpretation of words and symbols. Research done by Ellen Bialystok and Michelle Martin Rhee at York University in Toronto shows that bilingual children have better ability to “deal with conflicting visual and verbal information” (Deussen). A student with strong cognitive skills can better interpret a situation and understand the varied implications. It is with this ability that students often understand of the world and the different people around them that adaptation becomes easy. By building strong cognitive skill sets in students, bilingual education prepares them better adapt in foreign communities.
Bilingual education often reduces drop-out rates. Often among non-natives, there is a fear that coming from a language other than English will subject them to prejudice or obstacles in their education. This fear, coupled with the hardships non-natives face coming from a different background, sometimes drives them to drop out of schools;
limited English proficient students are less proficient in core academic skills, which may make later classes more difficult, cause placement in less rigorous tracks of study, and raise dropout rates, lowering eventual educational attainment and human capital (Chin).
Students who are only proficient in their native languages often have difficulty with higher level academic curriculum and often drop out of school. Instruction in two languages relieves this issue and helps prevent non-native students from dropping out. “Bilingual education has heightened awareness of the needs of immigrant, migrant, and refugee children” (Porter). Bilingual education helps immigrant and refugee children learn English in order to succeed academically. Bilingual education values English as equally important as a second language, which enables students to develop more advanced language skills. No student is made to feel like an outsider as they are all given the same chance to acquaint themselves with the host language and culture. Bilingual education strives to go the extra mile to makes students feel welcome in the community, motivating those students to learn and make more meaningful contributions to that community.
With practical skills and knowledge of the culture and language of a place, a student is bound to feel more comfortable and confident, interacting with the community. Bilingual education, gives students this confidence for more than one language and community. Professor Leonardo De Valoes, an academic who speaks many languages fluently, says “our language is the most important part of our being.” It is important to learn other languages, other forms of communication besides our own in order to learn about other peoples and cultures. One important argument is that people can learn from their own mother tongue as this is a basic concept of identity. If people forget their first language, they lose a part of their background. Bilingual education focuses on achieving this objective while making students proficient in the dominant language or English. Like soil to a tree, bilingual education helps one stay connected with their roots and gives them a chance to grow and evolve in a diverse community.
Immersion in two languages at the same time is also an incentive for immigrant parents to educate their children as they American English, which helps them adapt in the US but they also stay connected to their linguistic heritage. With an increase in immigration, it is important that immigrant children receive an education that caters to both their native language and the language of the land. “For immigrant families and communities, raising bilingual children who can speak the language of their family and friends back in their country of origin preserves important relationships, traditions, and identity. At the same time, highly developed English skills provide the ability to participate fully in “mainstream” American life” (Deussen). Children are fluent in their home languages also master English language, which new opportunities and the possibility of relationships with people in other communities and countries
However, language experts believed at a certain point hat bilingual education jeopardized one’s chances of adjusting in foreign communities by limiting their linguistic skills. In the 20th century, “researchers, educators and policy makers long considered a second language to be an interference, cognitively speaking, that hindered a child’s academic and intellectual development” (Bhattacharjee). The critics felt that children would be confused as to which language to use when and would mix them up. But Bhattacharjee argues,
There is ample evidence that in a bilingual’s brain both language systems are active even when one is speaking only one language, thus creating situations in which one system obstructs the other. But this interference, researchers are finding out, isn’t so much a handicap as a blessing in disguise. It forces the brain to resolve internal conflict, giving the mind a workout that strengthens its cognitive muscles (Bhattacharjee).
Bilingual education teaches the student how and when to use this muscle in their brain for better understanding. This challenge strengthens not only one’s language skills but also their overall academic skills. With a better understanding of the diverse culture and better interpretation of the host language, one can settle in more easily.
While the benefits of bilingual education are clear to some, others still argue that bilingual education should not be practiced. Dr. Rosalie Porter, formerly a bilingual teacher, says bilingual education is a “wrong-headed theory” that doesn’t work. She believes that “structured immersion”, where “children initially are taught English in separate classrooms for part of the day, along with others who grow up speaking a different language at home, but are quickly thrust into classrooms where the teaching is in English” is a better approach of teaching for schools. “Most children in structured immersion can get up to speed in two years; with bilingual education, we’ve seen that it takes kids three to six years to mainstream” (Peek). Here, Dr. Porter argues that bilingual education is not an effective program and claims that there are better alternatives, which are shorter and more efficient. Despite Dr. Porter’s claim, bilingual education is better than alternatives because the alternatives like structured immersion, prioritize English over other languages, which is not justified in a culturally diverse country where the immigrant population is on a rise. Bilingual education might seem to be a lengthy process, but it does ensure quality linguistic learning which should be every schools main goal. “We don't do kids any favor by shoving them into English as fast as we can,” says Todd Butler, a teacher with more than a quarter-century of experience. “The research shows very clearly that the longer we can give them support in their language, the better they're going to do not just in elementary school but in secondary school as well” (Jost). Education is not about one-size-fits-all and bilingual education with its slow and steady pace helps more students learn and adapt.
Another majorly argued reason against bilingual education is that it is too expensive. According to a study by Boston University’s Christine Rossell, “Texas schools with a bilingual program spend $402 more per student than schools without a bilingual program. Other studies find that bilingual education costs $200 to $700 more per pupil than alternative approaches” (Peek). Authorities argue that this kind of funding cannot be justified to teach a language that is not dominantly used. That argument is not a strong one because firstly, it is morally unjustified to not invest in the success of every student for future of a country. It is shortsighted because bilingual education programs are investments in human capital. As the school system adopts bilingual education programs, they are investing in the students’ skill sets, which are in high demand in today’s globalized economic world.
The benefits of bilingual education far exceed its cons. It not only ensures that students’ language skills will stick with them for life, unlike English-only learning programs, it also prepares all students with stronger academic and critical thinking skills, and greater potential for success. Extensive research provides strong evidence to support bilingual education, already enough incentive to introduce bilingual education in schools; and with more research, we will only see more incentives. Bilingual education is clearly a beneficial investment for our students and our country, and hence a program all schools should introduce.
Works Cited:
Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit. “Why Bilinguals Are Smarter”, The New York Times. March 17, 2012.
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/18/opinion/sunday/the-benefits-of-bilingualism.html. November 11, 2016.
Bialystok, Ellen (York University). “Bilingualism: The good, the bad, and the indifferent”. Bilingualism: Language ad Cognition, Volume 12, Issue 1. January 2001. The Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728908003477. November 10, 2016.
Carr, Sarah. “The Reinvention of Bilingual Education in America’s Schools”. Schooled, With Columbia Journalism School Teacher’s program. January 5, 2015.
http://www.slate.com/blogs/schooled/2015/01/05/bilingual_education_the_promise_of_dual_language_programs_for_spanish_speaking.html. November 15, 2016.
Chin, Aimee. “Impact of Bilingual Education on Student Achievement.” IZA World of Labor. March 2015. http://wol.iza.org/articles/impact-of-bilingual-education-on-student-achievement.pdf. November 18, 2016.
Deussen, Theresa. “Treating Language as a Strength: The Benefits of Bilingualism”, Educationnorthwest.org. December 18, 2014. http://educationnorthwest.org/northwest-matters/treating-language-strength-benefits-bilingualism. November 11, 2016.
Google.com Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States
Haynes, Erin. “Heritage Beliefs”.
http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/what-is-language-loss.pdf. 2010.
Iyer, Aparna. “The Disadvantages of Bilingual Education That Really Make Sense”. September 2, 2016.
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/disadvantages-of-bilingual-education.html. November 15, 2016.
Jost, Kenneth. “Bilingual Education vs. English Immersion”. http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2009121100. December 11, 2009.
Marian, Viorica and Shook, Anthony. “The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual” October 31, 2012. The Dana Foundation. http://dana.org/Cerebrum/2012/The_Cognitive_Benefits_of_Being_Bilingual/. November 15, 2016.
Mavis E. Hetherington. Ross D. Parke, “Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint” Chapter 9 “Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky”. http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072820144/student_view0/chapter9/index.html
Peek, Liz. “Bilingual Education: Toss It and Teach Kids English”, The Fiscal Times. August 25, 2010.
http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Columns/2010/08/25/Bilingual-Education-Does-Not-Work.
Porter, Rosalia Pedalino. “The Case Against Bilingual Education”, The Atlantic. May 1998 Issue.
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/05/the-case-against-bilingual-education/305426/. November 10, 2016.
TEDxAms Blogsquad. “The Different Brain of a Bilingual”, TEDX Amsterdam. http://tedx.amsterdam/2012/08/the-different-brain-of-a-bilingual/. November 11, 2016.
Valoes, Leonardo De. “Importance of Language – Why Learning a Second Language is Important”. http://www.trinitydc.edu/continuing-education/2014/02/26/importance-of-language-why-learning-a-second-language-is-important/. February 26, 2014.
Zelasko, Nancy F. “Bilingual Education - Need for Bilingual Education, Benefits of Bilingualism and Theoretical Foundations of Bilingual Education”. http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1788/Bilingual-Education.html.
Bilingual education facilitates adaptation by improving the non-native student’s academic skills. Students with stronger academic skill are often more confident about themselves and have a better chance at adapting to their new environment. With this background, they often feel like they are capable of learning new things and are more open to adjusting into the community. An eight-year study conducted between 1984 to 1991 of the Longitudinal Study of Structured English Immersion Strategy, Early-Exit and Late-Exit Programs for Language-Minority Children, validated by the National Academy of Sciences says that “those students who received more native language instruction for a longer period not only performed better academically, but also acquired English language skills at the same rate as those students who were taught only in English.” (education.stateuniversity.com) Also, a 2004 study by psychologist Ellen Bialystok and Michelle Martin-Rhee proved that “bilinguals seem to be more adept than monolinguals at solving certain kinds of mental puzzles” (Bhattacharjee). This suggests that a bilingual education enhances all students’ learning abilities, while also dismantling barriers between different cultures.
This teaching method often assists in bridging the gap between different communities by improving a child’s cognitive skills. Cognitive psychologists Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky define cognition as “the mental activity and behavior that allows us to understand the world” (Piaget and Vygotsky). When the brain hears or sees a word, it starts conjuring possible outcomes before the entire context is heard. The sound of a word is broken down by the brain, facilitating it to guess the word even before it is completed by activating different words that match the signal. For instance, when one hears “to”, words like “towards” and “tonight” automatically come to their mind. For bilingual students, this activation extends to two different languages resulting in quick and better interpretation of words and symbols. Research done by Ellen Bialystok and Michelle Martin Rhee at York University in Toronto shows that bilingual children have better ability to “deal with conflicting visual and verbal information” (Deussen). A student with strong cognitive skills can better interpret a situation and understand the varied implications. It is with this ability that students often understand of the world and the different people around them that adaptation becomes easy. By building strong cognitive skill sets in students, bilingual education prepares them better adapt in foreign communities.
Bilingual education often reduces drop-out rates. Often among non-natives, there is a fear that coming from a language other than English will subject them to prejudice or obstacles in their education. This fear, coupled with the hardships non-natives face coming from a different background, sometimes drives them to drop out of schools;
limited English proficient students are less proficient in core academic skills, which may make later classes more difficult, cause placement in less rigorous tracks of study, and raise dropout rates, lowering eventual educational attainment and human capital (Chin).
Students who are only proficient in their native languages often have difficulty with higher level academic curriculum and often drop out of school. Instruction in two languages relieves this issue and helps prevent non-native students from dropping out. “Bilingual education has heightened awareness of the needs of immigrant, migrant, and refugee children” (Porter). Bilingual education helps immigrant and refugee children learn English in order to succeed academically. Bilingual education values English as equally important as a second language, which enables students to develop more advanced language skills. No student is made to feel like an outsider as they are all given the same chance to acquaint themselves with the host language and culture. Bilingual education strives to go the extra mile to makes students feel welcome in the community, motivating those students to learn and make more meaningful contributions to that community.
With practical skills and knowledge of the culture and language of a place, a student is bound to feel more comfortable and confident, interacting with the community. Bilingual education, gives students this confidence for more than one language and community. Professor Leonardo De Valoes, an academic who speaks many languages fluently, says “our language is the most important part of our being.” It is important to learn other languages, other forms of communication besides our own in order to learn about other peoples and cultures. One important argument is that people can learn from their own mother tongue as this is a basic concept of identity. If people forget their first language, they lose a part of their background. Bilingual education focuses on achieving this objective while making students proficient in the dominant language or English. Like soil to a tree, bilingual education helps one stay connected with their roots and gives them a chance to grow and evolve in a diverse community.
Immersion in two languages at the same time is also an incentive for immigrant parents to educate their children as they American English, which helps them adapt in the US but they also stay connected to their linguistic heritage. With an increase in immigration, it is important that immigrant children receive an education that caters to both their native language and the language of the land. “For immigrant families and communities, raising bilingual children who can speak the language of their family and friends back in their country of origin preserves important relationships, traditions, and identity. At the same time, highly developed English skills provide the ability to participate fully in “mainstream” American life” (Deussen). Children are fluent in their home languages also master English language, which new opportunities and the possibility of relationships with people in other communities and countries
However, language experts believed at a certain point hat bilingual education jeopardized one’s chances of adjusting in foreign communities by limiting their linguistic skills. In the 20th century, “researchers, educators and policy makers long considered a second language to be an interference, cognitively speaking, that hindered a child’s academic and intellectual development” (Bhattacharjee). The critics felt that children would be confused as to which language to use when and would mix them up. But Bhattacharjee argues,
There is ample evidence that in a bilingual’s brain both language systems are active even when one is speaking only one language, thus creating situations in which one system obstructs the other. But this interference, researchers are finding out, isn’t so much a handicap as a blessing in disguise. It forces the brain to resolve internal conflict, giving the mind a workout that strengthens its cognitive muscles (Bhattacharjee).
Bilingual education teaches the student how and when to use this muscle in their brain for better understanding. This challenge strengthens not only one’s language skills but also their overall academic skills. With a better understanding of the diverse culture and better interpretation of the host language, one can settle in more easily.
While the benefits of bilingual education are clear to some, others still argue that bilingual education should not be practiced. Dr. Rosalie Porter, formerly a bilingual teacher, says bilingual education is a “wrong-headed theory” that doesn’t work. She believes that “structured immersion”, where “children initially are taught English in separate classrooms for part of the day, along with others who grow up speaking a different language at home, but are quickly thrust into classrooms where the teaching is in English” is a better approach of teaching for schools. “Most children in structured immersion can get up to speed in two years; with bilingual education, we’ve seen that it takes kids three to six years to mainstream” (Peek). Here, Dr. Porter argues that bilingual education is not an effective program and claims that there are better alternatives, which are shorter and more efficient. Despite Dr. Porter’s claim, bilingual education is better than alternatives because the alternatives like structured immersion, prioritize English over other languages, which is not justified in a culturally diverse country where the immigrant population is on a rise. Bilingual education might seem to be a lengthy process, but it does ensure quality linguistic learning which should be every schools main goal. “We don't do kids any favor by shoving them into English as fast as we can,” says Todd Butler, a teacher with more than a quarter-century of experience. “The research shows very clearly that the longer we can give them support in their language, the better they're going to do not just in elementary school but in secondary school as well” (Jost). Education is not about one-size-fits-all and bilingual education with its slow and steady pace helps more students learn and adapt.
Another majorly argued reason against bilingual education is that it is too expensive. According to a study by Boston University’s Christine Rossell, “Texas schools with a bilingual program spend $402 more per student than schools without a bilingual program. Other studies find that bilingual education costs $200 to $700 more per pupil than alternative approaches” (Peek). Authorities argue that this kind of funding cannot be justified to teach a language that is not dominantly used. That argument is not a strong one because firstly, it is morally unjustified to not invest in the success of every student for future of a country. It is shortsighted because bilingual education programs are investments in human capital. As the school system adopts bilingual education programs, they are investing in the students’ skill sets, which are in high demand in today’s globalized economic world.
The benefits of bilingual education far exceed its cons. It not only ensures that students’ language skills will stick with them for life, unlike English-only learning programs, it also prepares all students with stronger academic and critical thinking skills, and greater potential for success. Extensive research provides strong evidence to support bilingual education, already enough incentive to introduce bilingual education in schools; and with more research, we will only see more incentives. Bilingual education is clearly a beneficial investment for our students and our country, and hence a program all schools should introduce.
Works Cited:
Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit. “Why Bilinguals Are Smarter”, The New York Times. March 17, 2012.
http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/18/opinion/sunday/the-benefits-of-bilingualism.html. November 11, 2016.
Bialystok, Ellen (York University). “Bilingualism: The good, the bad, and the indifferent”. Bilingualism: Language ad Cognition, Volume 12, Issue 1. January 2001. The Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728908003477. November 10, 2016.
Carr, Sarah. “The Reinvention of Bilingual Education in America’s Schools”. Schooled, With Columbia Journalism School Teacher’s program. January 5, 2015.
http://www.slate.com/blogs/schooled/2015/01/05/bilingual_education_the_promise_of_dual_language_programs_for_spanish_speaking.html. November 15, 2016.
Chin, Aimee. “Impact of Bilingual Education on Student Achievement.” IZA World of Labor. March 2015. http://wol.iza.org/articles/impact-of-bilingual-education-on-student-achievement.pdf. November 18, 2016.
Deussen, Theresa. “Treating Language as a Strength: The Benefits of Bilingualism”, Educationnorthwest.org. December 18, 2014. http://educationnorthwest.org/northwest-matters/treating-language-strength-benefits-bilingualism. November 11, 2016.
Google.com Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States
Haynes, Erin. “Heritage Beliefs”.
http://www.cal.org/heritage/pdfs/briefs/what-is-language-loss.pdf. 2010.
Iyer, Aparna. “The Disadvantages of Bilingual Education That Really Make Sense”. September 2, 2016.
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/disadvantages-of-bilingual-education.html. November 15, 2016.
Jost, Kenneth. “Bilingual Education vs. English Immersion”. http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre2009121100. December 11, 2009.
Marian, Viorica and Shook, Anthony. “The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual” October 31, 2012. The Dana Foundation. http://dana.org/Cerebrum/2012/The_Cognitive_Benefits_of_Being_Bilingual/. November 15, 2016.
Mavis E. Hetherington. Ross D. Parke, “Child Psychology: A Contemporary Viewpoint” Chapter 9 “Cognitive Development: Piaget and Vygotsky”. http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072820144/student_view0/chapter9/index.html
Peek, Liz. “Bilingual Education: Toss It and Teach Kids English”, The Fiscal Times. August 25, 2010.
http://www.thefiscaltimes.com/Columns/2010/08/25/Bilingual-Education-Does-Not-Work.
Porter, Rosalia Pedalino. “The Case Against Bilingual Education”, The Atlantic. May 1998 Issue.
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/05/the-case-against-bilingual-education/305426/. November 10, 2016.
TEDxAms Blogsquad. “The Different Brain of a Bilingual”, TEDX Amsterdam. http://tedx.amsterdam/2012/08/the-different-brain-of-a-bilingual/. November 11, 2016.
Valoes, Leonardo De. “Importance of Language – Why Learning a Second Language is Important”. http://www.trinitydc.edu/continuing-education/2014/02/26/importance-of-language-why-learning-a-second-language-is-important/. February 26, 2014.
Zelasko, Nancy F. “Bilingual Education - Need for Bilingual Education, Benefits of Bilingualism and Theoretical Foundations of Bilingual Education”. http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1788/Bilingual-Education.html.
Ivan Manriquez, Jr.
The Analytic Perspective of Ocean Change
The Analytic Perspective of Ocean Change
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Ivan Manriquez, Jr. was born and raised in Los Angeles, California. He attended Montebello High School and is a freshman at SF State. Ivan decided to major in Astrophysics when he visited the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. There he learned about magisterial truths and insights, including the fact that we have chemical traces to the stars in the heavens. This inspired him to investigate the cosmos. Ivan’s biggest interests include Earth Science, Climate Science, Physics, Computer Science, Mathematics, Astronomy, and Philosophy. He loves having intellectual discussions and would talk to anyone.
He also loves reading a wide range of topics. Some of his favorite books include: Native Son, The Art of Living, Meditations, and Seven Brief Lessons on Physics. He enjoys a good run to the beach and meditating in nature. Ivan believes, as Buddha suggests, “The mind is everything, what you think, you become.” Ivan is part of the Guardian Scholars Program which helps foster youth excel in college. His biggest goal is to make a grand scientific breakthrough to help humanity.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, PHILIP KLASKY:
Ivan Manriquez' paper is an excellent example of how SFSU students are giving serious, science-based thought and analysis to the challenges presented by global climate destabilization and its wide ranging impacts.
Ivan Manriquez, Jr. was born and raised in Los Angeles, California. He attended Montebello High School and is a freshman at SF State. Ivan decided to major in Astrophysics when he visited the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles. There he learned about magisterial truths and insights, including the fact that we have chemical traces to the stars in the heavens. This inspired him to investigate the cosmos. Ivan’s biggest interests include Earth Science, Climate Science, Physics, Computer Science, Mathematics, Astronomy, and Philosophy. He loves having intellectual discussions and would talk to anyone.
He also loves reading a wide range of topics. Some of his favorite books include: Native Son, The Art of Living, Meditations, and Seven Brief Lessons on Physics. He enjoys a good run to the beach and meditating in nature. Ivan believes, as Buddha suggests, “The mind is everything, what you think, you become.” Ivan is part of the Guardian Scholars Program which helps foster youth excel in college. His biggest goal is to make a grand scientific breakthrough to help humanity.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, PHILIP KLASKY:
Ivan Manriquez' paper is an excellent example of how SFSU students are giving serious, science-based thought and analysis to the challenges presented by global climate destabilization and its wide ranging impacts.
INTRODUCTION
This paper is concerned with the four main contributors to oceanic destruction: greenhouse gas emissions, overfishing, oil spills, and tourism. Before examining oceanic changes, I will provide a brief history of climate change research, define climate change, and determine its main cause. With this context established, I will turn to the main Earthly systems affected by climate change: the oceans. Human greenhouse gas emissions exacerbate climate change and have led to oceans’ exponential growth in acidity and its decline in species. Additionally, oil spills create disadvantages to the biology, ecology, and geology of the oceans. Overfishing is yet another example of human behavior that distresses oceans and endangers a major human food source. Finally, tourism and modern developments by the coastlines put coastal ecosystems at risk. These anthropogenic transgressions must be reversed, if possible, or prevented in the future. This work will culminate in a discussion of the climate justice movement, its many forms, and the ethical imperative the movement promotes.
Since the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century, humans have relied heavily on coal to power engines and produce goods. Humans predominantly used coal because it was a stable source of energy, yet they underestimated the hazards of coal procurement and usage. Thus, humans kept damaging ecosystems to find coal. It wasn’t until the 1890’s that a Swedish Chemist by the name of Svante Arrhenius proposed a paper titled, “On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground,” which “pinned down the workings of the greenhouse effect and laid the scientific basis for the emissions cuts being debated to this day” (Clark). This heavily criticized, groundbreaking paper was known to originate the concept of climate change. The notion of climate change was dismissed until the late 1950’s, when scientists finally began gathering data concerning the concentration levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. The 1960’s provided some computer models and simulations about the possible rise of CO2 in the atmosphere, and this was confirmed in the 1980’s when scientists found that the planet's temperature was increasing exponentially.
Over time, our methods allowed climate scientists to analyze and answer basic questions about the Earth’s climate. Furthermore, scientists were able to deduce how weather patterns correlate with the Earth’s changing climate, and therefore develop a definition of climate change. According to NASA,
INTRODUCTION
This paper is concerned with the four main contributors to oceanic destruction: greenhouse gas emissions, overfishing, oil spills, and tourism. Before examining oceanic changes, I will provide a brief history of climate change research, define climate change, and determine its main cause. With this context established, I will turn to the main Earthly systems affected by climate change: the oceans. Human greenhouse gas emissions exacerbate climate change and have led to oceans’ exponential growth in acidity and its decline in species. Additionally, oil spills create disadvantages to the biology, ecology, and geology of the oceans. Overfishing is yet another example of human behavior that distresses oceans and endangers a major human food source. Finally, tourism and modern developments by the coastlines put coastal ecosystems at risk. These anthropogenic transgressions must be reversed, if possible, or prevented in the future. This work will culminate in a discussion of the climate justice movement, its many forms, and the ethical imperative the movement promotes.
Since the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century, humans have relied heavily on coal to power engines and produce goods. Humans predominantly used coal because it was a stable source of energy, yet they underestimated the hazards of coal procurement and usage. Thus, humans kept damaging ecosystems to find coal. It wasn’t until the 1890’s that a Swedish Chemist by the name of Svante Arrhenius proposed a paper titled, “On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground,” which “pinned down the workings of the greenhouse effect and laid the scientific basis for the emissions cuts being debated to this day” (Clark). This heavily criticized, groundbreaking paper was known to originate the concept of climate change. The notion of climate change was dismissed until the late 1950’s, when scientists finally began gathering data concerning the concentration levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. The 1960’s provided some computer models and simulations about the possible rise of CO2 in the atmosphere, and this was confirmed in the 1980’s when scientists found that the planet's temperature was increasing exponentially.
Over time, our methods allowed climate scientists to analyze and answer basic questions about the Earth’s climate. Furthermore, scientists were able to deduce how weather patterns correlate with the Earth’s changing climate, and therefore develop a definition of climate change. According to NASA,
Climate change’ encompasses global warming, but refers to the broader range of changes that are happening to our planet. These include rising sea levels, shrinking mountain glaciers, accelerating ice melt in Greenland, Antarctica, and the Arctic, and shifts in flower/plant blooming times (ClimateNASA, climate.nasa.gov/evidence).
Data sources: NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies, NOAA National Climatic Data Center, Met Office Hadley Centre/Climatic Research Unit and the Japanese Meteorological Agency.
When asked what causes climate change, “97% of climate scientists agree that climate-warming trends over the past century are very likely due to human activities” (NASA). Science academies, medical associations, and affiliates concur that humans are the root of climate change and that the threats posed by climate change are growing due to complacency and inaction. For example, The Geological Society of America states,
When asked what causes climate change, “97% of climate scientists agree that climate-warming trends over the past century are very likely due to human activities” (NASA). Science academies, medical associations, and affiliates concur that humans are the root of climate change and that the threats posed by climate change are growing due to complacency and inaction. For example, The Geological Society of America states,
we concur with assessments by the National Academies of Science (2005), the National Research Council (2006), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) that global climate has warmed and that human activities (mainly greenhouse gas emissions) account for most of the warming since the middle 1900s" (2006; revised 2010).
Additionally, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states, “human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gasses are the highest in history. Recent climate changes have had widespread impacts on human and natural systems” (NASA).
Global climate change undenabily affects oceanic ecosysytems and oceanic biodiversity around the world. Greenhouse gases toxidify our planet and our failure to curb our emissions will inevitably result in oceanic destruction. This paper will continue to reveal how anthropogenic emissions are causing the oceans to acidify, and will examine the effects of human behavior, specifically overfishing, oil spills, and tourism, on oceanic wildlife and coastlines.
METHODOLOGY
I derived a majority of my research from scientific magazines, such as Science Magazine and The Earth Island Journal. Additional information came from outlines on climate change, climate justice, and human history assigned in the class, “Race, Activism, and Climate Justice” at San Francisco State University. Articles and texts I have utilized include, “The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics of Pollution,” “The Introduction to This Changes Everything,” and Earth by Bill McKibben. Lastly, I employed reputable websites focused on climate change like ClimateNASA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) website, and The New York Times website.
BODY
The oceans are being destroyed by anthropogenic emissions of CO2. During a lecture in “Race, Activism, and Climate Justice” it was stated, most of these emissions come from the production of electricity; about thirty-one percent comes from burning fossil fuels, mostly coal and natural gas. Twenty-seven percent comes from fossil fuels for cars, trucks, ships, trains and planes. Twenty-one percent comes from burning fossil fuels for energy and chemical reactions to produce goods from raw materials. The remaining percentage results from businesses and homes burning fossil fuels for heat and handling waste, and emissions from livestock such as cows, agricultural soils, and rice production (“Source of Greenhouse”).
Global climate change undenabily affects oceanic ecosysytems and oceanic biodiversity around the world. Greenhouse gases toxidify our planet and our failure to curb our emissions will inevitably result in oceanic destruction. This paper will continue to reveal how anthropogenic emissions are causing the oceans to acidify, and will examine the effects of human behavior, specifically overfishing, oil spills, and tourism, on oceanic wildlife and coastlines.
METHODOLOGY
I derived a majority of my research from scientific magazines, such as Science Magazine and The Earth Island Journal. Additional information came from outlines on climate change, climate justice, and human history assigned in the class, “Race, Activism, and Climate Justice” at San Francisco State University. Articles and texts I have utilized include, “The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics of Pollution,” “The Introduction to This Changes Everything,” and Earth by Bill McKibben. Lastly, I employed reputable websites focused on climate change like ClimateNASA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) website, and The New York Times website.
BODY
The oceans are being destroyed by anthropogenic emissions of CO2. During a lecture in “Race, Activism, and Climate Justice” it was stated, most of these emissions come from the production of electricity; about thirty-one percent comes from burning fossil fuels, mostly coal and natural gas. Twenty-seven percent comes from fossil fuels for cars, trucks, ships, trains and planes. Twenty-one percent comes from burning fossil fuels for energy and chemical reactions to produce goods from raw materials. The remaining percentage results from businesses and homes burning fossil fuels for heat and handling waste, and emissions from livestock such as cows, agricultural soils, and rice production (“Source of Greenhouse”).
The oceans naturally absorb Carbon Dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere and are therefore heavily impacted by the CO2 emissions previously described. According to Science Magazine, “the deep ocean absorbs vast amounts of heat and carbon dioxide, providing a critical buffer to climate change but exposing vulnerable ecosystems to combined stresses of warming, ocean acidification, deoxygenation, and altered food inputs” (Levin). The process of ocean acidification begins because of the excess amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. Then, the oceans absorb some Carbon Dioxide (CO2), causing Water (H20) to chemically mix with CO2 from the atmosphere and create the very acidic and dangerous compound, Carbonic Acid (H2CO3). In Eaarth, Bill McKibben acknowledges, “the sea is already thirty percent more acidic because of our careless carbon emissions” (McKibben). These changes “threaten ocean productivity, biodiversity, and poisoning of living resources, which can potentially damage the deep-sea diversity library of species” (Levin). Changes in the oceans’ chemistry endanger the homes and food supply of its inhabitants.
One critical group of impacted marine life includes shells and skeletal species of the sea. According to Oceanus Magazine, “A new study has yielded surprising findings about how the shells of marine organisms might stand up to an increasingly acidic ocean in the future. Under very high experimental CO2 conditions, the shells of clams, oysters, and some snails and urchins partially dissolved” (Madin). Some species such as oysters, snails, and sea urchins can lose their shell over time, which will lead to their extinction. According to postdoctoral scholars at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Anne Cohn and Dan McCorkle,
One critical group of impacted marine life includes shells and skeletal species of the sea. According to Oceanus Magazine, “A new study has yielded surprising findings about how the shells of marine organisms might stand up to an increasingly acidic ocean in the future. Under very high experimental CO2 conditions, the shells of clams, oysters, and some snails and urchins partially dissolved” (Madin). Some species such as oysters, snails, and sea urchins can lose their shell over time, which will lead to their extinction. According to postdoctoral scholars at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Anne Cohn and Dan McCorkle,
[they] raised 18 species of marine organisms that build calcium carbonate shells or skeletons. Then we exposed the tanks to air containing CO2 at today’s level (400 parts per million, or ppm), at levels that climate models forecast for 100 years from now (600 ppm) and 200 years from now (900 ppm), and at a level (2,850 ppm) that should cause the types of calcium carbonate in shells (aragonite and high-magnesium calcite) to dissolve in seawater (Madin).
The results of this experiment were startling. The scientists discovered that waters containing a higher concentration of CO2 had different effects on different animals. Cohn and McCorkle commented, “the wide range of responses among organisms to higher CO2—from extremely positive to extremely negative—is the truly striking thing here” (Madin).
Another high-risk deep-sea species is deep-water corals. The importance of healthy deep-water corals is often underestimated, but these corals provide more than homes to oceanic species. According to Science Magazine, “Effects on deep-water corals are of particular concern, because their three dimensional aragonite structures form vast gardens that support highly diverse communities and provide key nursery habitat to commercial fishes” (Levin). Not only are the homes of marine species affected, but their nursery homes are put at risk as well. If we keep following this pattern, fish species will lose their nursery homes, and they will have trouble finding locations to lay their offspring, which can jeopardize the species as a whole. If the ocean keeps acidifying, eventually the aragonite structures will dissolve completely and slowly wipe out the fish species that rely on those structures. This can harm humans who heavily rely on fish as their main food source. It is clear that anthropogenic CO2 emissions are the main reason why the oceans are acidifying. If we continue to rely on un-renewable sources of energy, the oceans will become acidic enough to destroy a plethora of marine species, which will jeopardize the homes of a multitude of fish and damage one of our biggest food resources.
Furthermore, oil spills are a repercussion of human activity that affect the marine vertebrates and marine ecology of the oceans. Oil spills tend to have disastrous effects on the oceans because they alter the oceans’ biology and ecology. Drilling for oil in the sea floor, or transporting oil across the sea, can lead to water contamination and other devastating effects on marine life. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration explains the danger of oil spills claiming,
Another high-risk deep-sea species is deep-water corals. The importance of healthy deep-water corals is often underestimated, but these corals provide more than homes to oceanic species. According to Science Magazine, “Effects on deep-water corals are of particular concern, because their three dimensional aragonite structures form vast gardens that support highly diverse communities and provide key nursery habitat to commercial fishes” (Levin). Not only are the homes of marine species affected, but their nursery homes are put at risk as well. If we keep following this pattern, fish species will lose their nursery homes, and they will have trouble finding locations to lay their offspring, which can jeopardize the species as a whole. If the ocean keeps acidifying, eventually the aragonite structures will dissolve completely and slowly wipe out the fish species that rely on those structures. This can harm humans who heavily rely on fish as their main food source. It is clear that anthropogenic CO2 emissions are the main reason why the oceans are acidifying. If we continue to rely on un-renewable sources of energy, the oceans will become acidic enough to destroy a plethora of marine species, which will jeopardize the homes of a multitude of fish and damage one of our biggest food resources.
Furthermore, oil spills are a repercussion of human activity that affect the marine vertebrates and marine ecology of the oceans. Oil spills tend to have disastrous effects on the oceans because they alter the oceans’ biology and ecology. Drilling for oil in the sea floor, or transporting oil across the sea, can lead to water contamination and other devastating effects on marine life. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration explains the danger of oil spills claiming,
Many birds and animals ingest oil when they try to clean themselves, which can poison them. Fish and shellfish may not be exposed immediately, but can come into contact with oil if it is mixed into the water column. When exposed to oil, adult fish may experience reduced growth, enlarged livers, changes in heart and respiration rates, fin erosion, and reproduction impairment. Oil also adversely affects eggs and larval survival (National Ocean Service).
This massive death of species, from birds to fish, is devastating. Fish are poisoned by oil spills, and their ability to reproduce is damaged by ocean acidification. In conjunction, these threats to marine life promise to harm human life due to human reliance on the marine life as a food source. Additionally, if an area of fish becomes contaminated with oil, we may inadvertently catch the fish, sell it in our stores, and eat it in our homes. This sequence of events could have disastrous effects on human health.
In May 2015, Santa Barbara experienced a pipeline rupture, which afflicted the surrounding environment and the Pacific Ocean. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “a 24-inch pipeline rupture occurred earlier in the day near Refugio State Beach in Santa Barbara County, California. A reported 500 barrels (21,000 gallons) of crude oil flowed from the shore side of Highway 101 into the Pacific Ocean” (National Ocean Service). This pipeline rupture caused havoc in the Pacific Ocean by contaminating the ocean and the marine animals. Despite the findings of the NOAA, some economic consultants believe there is an upside to oil spills. According to The Earth Island Journal, Todd Schatzki, vice president of the economic consultancy Analysis Group, wrote in pre-trial testimony, “when a spill occurs, new economic activity occurs to clean contained areas, remediate affected properties, and supply equipment for cleanup activities” (Mitra). Todd Schatzki’s argument was taken further when Gregory Challenger, another consultant at Analysis Group, suggested that the benefits of a 2004 oil spill into the Delaware River extended beyond an increase in economic activity. According to Gregory Challenger, “There was an estimate of 3,000 birds affected by the oil, and 13,000 birds not shot by hunters because of the closed off area. We don’t get any credit for that, but it’s hard to deny that it’s good for birds not to be shot” (Mitra). Challenger’s logic is unsound. Oil spills generate jobs because cleaning up an oil spill and containing an oil leak is strenuous work. However, the damage to oceans and to marine life threatens the jobs of fisherman. Furthermore, the oil spills destroy oceanic ecosystems and degenerate a main human food supply. The cost of oil spills simply outweighs the slight uptick in economic activity. Despite the claims of consultants like Schatzki and Challenger, oil spills endanger sea life and therefore endanger us. Unfortunately, oil spills and greenhouse gas emissions are just two examples of detrimental human behavior.
In May 2015, Santa Barbara experienced a pipeline rupture, which afflicted the surrounding environment and the Pacific Ocean. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “a 24-inch pipeline rupture occurred earlier in the day near Refugio State Beach in Santa Barbara County, California. A reported 500 barrels (21,000 gallons) of crude oil flowed from the shore side of Highway 101 into the Pacific Ocean” (National Ocean Service). This pipeline rupture caused havoc in the Pacific Ocean by contaminating the ocean and the marine animals. Despite the findings of the NOAA, some economic consultants believe there is an upside to oil spills. According to The Earth Island Journal, Todd Schatzki, vice president of the economic consultancy Analysis Group, wrote in pre-trial testimony, “when a spill occurs, new economic activity occurs to clean contained areas, remediate affected properties, and supply equipment for cleanup activities” (Mitra). Todd Schatzki’s argument was taken further when Gregory Challenger, another consultant at Analysis Group, suggested that the benefits of a 2004 oil spill into the Delaware River extended beyond an increase in economic activity. According to Gregory Challenger, “There was an estimate of 3,000 birds affected by the oil, and 13,000 birds not shot by hunters because of the closed off area. We don’t get any credit for that, but it’s hard to deny that it’s good for birds not to be shot” (Mitra). Challenger’s logic is unsound. Oil spills generate jobs because cleaning up an oil spill and containing an oil leak is strenuous work. However, the damage to oceans and to marine life threatens the jobs of fisherman. Furthermore, the oil spills destroy oceanic ecosystems and degenerate a main human food supply. The cost of oil spills simply outweighs the slight uptick in economic activity. Despite the claims of consultants like Schatzki and Challenger, oil spills endanger sea life and therefore endanger us. Unfortunately, oil spills and greenhouse gas emissions are just two examples of detrimental human behavior.
Overfishing occurs as humans catch fish at a volume and pace that surpasses the reproductive capabilities of fish. According to the World Wildlife Fund for Nature, “as a result of overfishing, 53% of the world’s fisheries are fully exploited, and 32% of fisheries are over exploited, depleted, or are overcoming depletion” (“Unsustainable”). One drastic example is the overfishing in Newfoundland, Canada. The World Wildlife Fund for Nature stated that, “Newfoundland for centuries had cod stocks of the Grand Banks that seemed inexhaustible. But in 1992 the cod fishery collapsed- and some 40,000 people lost their jobs overnight, including 10,000 fishermen” (WWF). Nearly 20 years later, Newfoundland has still not recovered. Studies have shown that the ecosystem of the Grand Banks has changed so radically that the cod may never make a comeback. Moreover, the reduction in fish population correlates with a reduction in fish market jobs. In Newfoundland, many people have lost and continue to lose their jobs because of overfishing. Now that 53% of all fisheries are fully exploited, the fishermen employed by those fisheries could be discharged, which would place a heavy burden on the breadwinners of the affected families.
Another case of overfishing involves the Pacific blue fin tuna. The blue fin tuna are exceptionally powerful and crucial for ocean bio-diversity. They grow to be twice the size of a lion and are as fast as a gazelle. Unfortunately, because of tuna’s high market value, droves of profit-seeking fishermen routinely catch an irresponsibly high volume of tuna. According to The New York Times, “in the case of Pacific Bluefin, weak international regulations have failed to stem the toll. Now, where every 100 fish once thrived, fewer than three remain. Without rapid, coordinated action by the major fishing nations, Pacific Bluefin tuna face commercial extinction, becoming too rare to catch profitably” (Lubchenco). In essence, we are catching so much tuna that it is no longer profitable. There is no financial incentive to continue overfishing this species, and if we do not immediately modify our practices, the Bluefin Tuna will go extinct.
While we continue to hunt specific fish species into extinction, other marine animals are unintentionally caught in fishing gear. Bottom trawling is a fishing method that involves setting a huge net on the bottom of the sea floor. Although it is an effective method of catching desired fish, it indiscriminately harms other marine life. According to Green Peace, “if the same technique were used on land, it would be like dragging a vast net across the countryside - crushing trees, farms and wildlife in the process - to catch a few cows” (“Overfishing – emptying our seas). This method is very destructive; it harms the environments of hundreds of species.
The final anthropogenic source of oceanic depletion involves modern development on coastlines and tourism. Humans live in the countryside, urban areas, and mountain areas, yet the most popular location for housing is by the beach. Additionally, there is a high demand for vacation time at coastal locations. As coastlines around the globe are progressively transformed into new housing, holiday homes, and tourist attractions, aquatic bionetworks and species are suffering. One devastating example of modern development and tourism is in the Mediterranean. According to the World Wildlife Fund for Nature,
Another case of overfishing involves the Pacific blue fin tuna. The blue fin tuna are exceptionally powerful and crucial for ocean bio-diversity. They grow to be twice the size of a lion and are as fast as a gazelle. Unfortunately, because of tuna’s high market value, droves of profit-seeking fishermen routinely catch an irresponsibly high volume of tuna. According to The New York Times, “in the case of Pacific Bluefin, weak international regulations have failed to stem the toll. Now, where every 100 fish once thrived, fewer than three remain. Without rapid, coordinated action by the major fishing nations, Pacific Bluefin tuna face commercial extinction, becoming too rare to catch profitably” (Lubchenco). In essence, we are catching so much tuna that it is no longer profitable. There is no financial incentive to continue overfishing this species, and if we do not immediately modify our practices, the Bluefin Tuna will go extinct.
While we continue to hunt specific fish species into extinction, other marine animals are unintentionally caught in fishing gear. Bottom trawling is a fishing method that involves setting a huge net on the bottom of the sea floor. Although it is an effective method of catching desired fish, it indiscriminately harms other marine life. According to Green Peace, “if the same technique were used on land, it would be like dragging a vast net across the countryside - crushing trees, farms and wildlife in the process - to catch a few cows” (“Overfishing – emptying our seas). This method is very destructive; it harms the environments of hundreds of species.
The final anthropogenic source of oceanic depletion involves modern development on coastlines and tourism. Humans live in the countryside, urban areas, and mountain areas, yet the most popular location for housing is by the beach. Additionally, there is a high demand for vacation time at coastal locations. As coastlines around the globe are progressively transformed into new housing, holiday homes, and tourist attractions, aquatic bionetworks and species are suffering. One devastating example of modern development and tourism is in the Mediterranean. According to the World Wildlife Fund for Nature,
Of the 220 million tourists to the region every year, over 100 million flock to the beaches. In less than 20 years, the annual number of tourists visiting the area is expected to increase to 350 million. The huge tourism infrastructure developments have dramatically altered the natural dynamics of Mediterranean coastal ecosystems. For example, more than half of the 46,000km coastline is now urbanized, mainly along the European shores. This infrastructure is a major cause of habitat loss in the region, and some locations are now beyond repair (WWF).
We cannot reverse the development that has already occurred, but we must take actions to alleviate the stress housing and tourism has incurred on the Mediterranean ecosystem. Taking action to prevent further degradation of beaches and coastlines is one facet of a larger movement referred to as climate justice
Climate justice is based on the idea that as humans fail to protect their environment, they are perpetuating injustice against themselves. Climate justice is “the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development and enforcement of environmental laws” (Bullard, 4). The enactment of climate justice depends on unilateral, worldwide enforcement of environmental law. We must first attack CO2 emissions to stop the oceans from acidifying. The most effective action would involve an international treaty guaranteeing an end to our emissions by a date in the near future. Hoesung Lee, the chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, purposed such a treaty in Science Magazine. Lee states, “The goal is to achieve an international agreement to stem climate change.” This is a goal, which will be difficult to accomplish. The lives of millions depend on the collaboration of nations. On a national level, we can peacefully protest against climate change so our leaders take notice. However, the only way to save our oceans from acidifying further is to create an international bonding treaty to ease emissions of greenhouse gases.
Additionally, to employ climate justice, overfishing must be solved. We need simple yet stern regulations on how we fish and where. According to the World Wildlife Fund for Nature, “We must, implement and enforce better fisheries management, create and implement better fisheries policies, implement and enforce observers, look into the possibilities for Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certification, implement and enforce more selective fishing gear” (“What Can You Do?”). Furthermore, we must protect the oceans from oil spills in order to advance climate justice. In order to accomplish this we must stop using oil; we must halt building oil pipelines because of the damage they cause. Oil is useful to humans, but it harms our climate and threatens our race in the long run. When oil enters the sea, marine life is threatened and greatly reduced. When this happens, we deplete our largest food resource. Finally, to employ climate justice, it is our duty to protect our oceans from tourism and development. This is currently a problem that lacks a solution. To stop people from purchasing coastal homes is almost impossible, especially those who are wealthy enough to purchase beachfront property. As of now, preventing tourism is equally impractical. Perhaps the only achievable preventative legislation would involve “vacationing sanctions.” Large tourist areas should have limitations regarding seasons for tourism and the amount of people permitted entry. The solutions offered here are just a few examples of possible steps towards climate justice. Humans have the power to bring justice to the oceans of the world; we must now find the will to do so.
CONCLUSION
We as a collective human species must realize the big issue at hand. The damaging impact of human activity on coastlines and ocean life is undeniable, the negative impact of oil spills on marine vertebrates is chilling, and overfishing is causing a decaying trend of fish. Because of our continuous emission of greenhouse gases, our entire planet is experiencing consequential effects. The oceans are acidifying exponentially, faster than ever, and just as Naomi Klein wrote in the introduction to This Changes Everything, “we must plan a strategy to attack this massive issue. Nothing poses this strong a threat to humanity and mass movements of people can make this happen” (Klein 6). In the end, humans have the power to control their own destiny and the destiny of generations to come. Will we choose oceanic justice over profits? Will we bring marine species justice? Only the actions of the masses will tell. Climate change and oceanic destruction is a continuing calamity. Failure to act will end coastal and marine life and therefore lead to a steady decline in human life, as we know it.
Works Cited:
Bullard, Robert D. The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics of Pollution. Counterpoint. 01 Oct. 2005
Clark, Duncan. “Climate Controversies.” The Guardian, 14 February 2009.
“How does oil impact marine life?” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 21 Mar. 2014,
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oilimpacts.html.
Klasky, Phil, “Source of Greenhouse Gas Emissions”. Class Lecture. San Francisco State University, Global C02 Emissions.
Klein, Naomi. Intro to This Changes Everything. Simon and Schuster, 2015.
Levin, Lisa and Nadine Bris. “The deep ocean under climate change.” Science Magazine. Special Issue. vol. 350, no. 6262, 13 Nov. 2015.
Lee, Hoesung. “Turning the Focus to Solutions.” Science Magazine. vol 350, no. 6264, 27 Nov 2015.
Lubchenco, Jane and Maria Damanakidec. “Save the Bluefin Tuna.” New York Times. 4 Dec. 2016.
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/04/opinion/save-the-pacific-bluefin-tuna.html?_r=0.
Madin. Kate, Ocean Acidification: A Risky Shell Game: How will climate change affect the shells and skeletons of sea life? June 2010.
“Marine Problems: Tourism and Coastal Development.” WWF Global.
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/tourism/.
McKibben, Bill. Eaarth. St. Martin’s Griffin, 2011.
Mitra, Maureen. “An Upside of Oil Spills”. Earth Island Journal. vol. Fall 2016.
NASA Climate. “Scientific Consensus Earth’s Climate Is Warming.” NASA. 13 Dec. 2016. http://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consensus/.
“Overfishing—emptying our seas.” Green Peace UK, Nov. 2014.
http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/oceans/problems/overfishing-emptying-our-seas.
“What Can You Do.” WWF Global.
http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/smart_fishing/stop_bycatch
Climate justice is based on the idea that as humans fail to protect their environment, they are perpetuating injustice against themselves. Climate justice is “the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income with respect to the development and enforcement of environmental laws” (Bullard, 4). The enactment of climate justice depends on unilateral, worldwide enforcement of environmental law. We must first attack CO2 emissions to stop the oceans from acidifying. The most effective action would involve an international treaty guaranteeing an end to our emissions by a date in the near future. Hoesung Lee, the chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, purposed such a treaty in Science Magazine. Lee states, “The goal is to achieve an international agreement to stem climate change.” This is a goal, which will be difficult to accomplish. The lives of millions depend on the collaboration of nations. On a national level, we can peacefully protest against climate change so our leaders take notice. However, the only way to save our oceans from acidifying further is to create an international bonding treaty to ease emissions of greenhouse gases.
Additionally, to employ climate justice, overfishing must be solved. We need simple yet stern regulations on how we fish and where. According to the World Wildlife Fund for Nature, “We must, implement and enforce better fisheries management, create and implement better fisheries policies, implement and enforce observers, look into the possibilities for Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certification, implement and enforce more selective fishing gear” (“What Can You Do?”). Furthermore, we must protect the oceans from oil spills in order to advance climate justice. In order to accomplish this we must stop using oil; we must halt building oil pipelines because of the damage they cause. Oil is useful to humans, but it harms our climate and threatens our race in the long run. When oil enters the sea, marine life is threatened and greatly reduced. When this happens, we deplete our largest food resource. Finally, to employ climate justice, it is our duty to protect our oceans from tourism and development. This is currently a problem that lacks a solution. To stop people from purchasing coastal homes is almost impossible, especially those who are wealthy enough to purchase beachfront property. As of now, preventing tourism is equally impractical. Perhaps the only achievable preventative legislation would involve “vacationing sanctions.” Large tourist areas should have limitations regarding seasons for tourism and the amount of people permitted entry. The solutions offered here are just a few examples of possible steps towards climate justice. Humans have the power to bring justice to the oceans of the world; we must now find the will to do so.
CONCLUSION
We as a collective human species must realize the big issue at hand. The damaging impact of human activity on coastlines and ocean life is undeniable, the negative impact of oil spills on marine vertebrates is chilling, and overfishing is causing a decaying trend of fish. Because of our continuous emission of greenhouse gases, our entire planet is experiencing consequential effects. The oceans are acidifying exponentially, faster than ever, and just as Naomi Klein wrote in the introduction to This Changes Everything, “we must plan a strategy to attack this massive issue. Nothing poses this strong a threat to humanity and mass movements of people can make this happen” (Klein 6). In the end, humans have the power to control their own destiny and the destiny of generations to come. Will we choose oceanic justice over profits? Will we bring marine species justice? Only the actions of the masses will tell. Climate change and oceanic destruction is a continuing calamity. Failure to act will end coastal and marine life and therefore lead to a steady decline in human life, as we know it.
Works Cited:
Bullard, Robert D. The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics of Pollution. Counterpoint. 01 Oct. 2005
Clark, Duncan. “Climate Controversies.” The Guardian, 14 February 2009.
“How does oil impact marine life?” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 21 Mar. 2014,
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/oilimpacts.html.
Klasky, Phil, “Source of Greenhouse Gas Emissions”. Class Lecture. San Francisco State University, Global C02 Emissions.
Klein, Naomi. Intro to This Changes Everything. Simon and Schuster, 2015.
Levin, Lisa and Nadine Bris. “The deep ocean under climate change.” Science Magazine. Special Issue. vol. 350, no. 6262, 13 Nov. 2015.
Lee, Hoesung. “Turning the Focus to Solutions.” Science Magazine. vol 350, no. 6264, 27 Nov 2015.
Lubchenco, Jane and Maria Damanakidec. “Save the Bluefin Tuna.” New York Times. 4 Dec. 2016.
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/04/opinion/save-the-pacific-bluefin-tuna.html?_r=0.
Madin. Kate, Ocean Acidification: A Risky Shell Game: How will climate change affect the shells and skeletons of sea life? June 2010.
“Marine Problems: Tourism and Coastal Development.” WWF Global.
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/tourism/.
McKibben, Bill. Eaarth. St. Martin’s Griffin, 2011.
Mitra, Maureen. “An Upside of Oil Spills”. Earth Island Journal. vol. Fall 2016.
NASA Climate. “Scientific Consensus Earth’s Climate Is Warming.” NASA. 13 Dec. 2016. http://climate.nasa.gov/scientific-consensus/.
“Overfishing—emptying our seas.” Green Peace UK, Nov. 2014.
http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/oceans/problems/overfishing-emptying-our-seas.
“What Can You Do.” WWF Global.
http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/footprint/smart_fishing/stop_bycatch
SOPHOMORES
Swetha Pottam
Her Body, But Not Her Choice
Her Body, But Not Her Choice
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Swetha is a second-year student at SF State from San Fernando Valley, and she adores the fresh change San Francisco has brought her. She started her undergraduate career majoring in Journalism, but she doesn’t think it will stick. She is passionate about feminism and implements this in her writing and life. She has always been fascinated with writing and hopes one day to write a book that will live on beyond her. Until then, Swetha is satisfied spending her days working on her degree, reading, and being a tea enthusiast.
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR NAN BOYD:
Swetha wrote “Her Body, But Not Her Choice” in Women and Gender Studies 300: Gender, Race, and Nation - the Women and Gender Studies department’s GWAR class, a writing-intensive seminar required for all WGS majors and minors. During the semester, students develop skills to write a medium-length research paper by conducting research on a topic of their choice that relates to the politics of gender, race, and nation. Students are also required to effectively utilize an interdisciplinary, intersectional, and transnational analysis in relation to their topic. This isn’t easy! Many students interpret the transnational analysis to be about “over there” or outside the national boundaries of the United States, but a transnational analysis interrogates the function of the nation or nationalism in the production of gendered and radicalized meanings, which is what Swetha Pottam’s essay does so incisively — and well.
Swetha is a second-year student at SF State from San Fernando Valley, and she adores the fresh change San Francisco has brought her. She started her undergraduate career majoring in Journalism, but she doesn’t think it will stick. She is passionate about feminism and implements this in her writing and life. She has always been fascinated with writing and hopes one day to write a book that will live on beyond her. Until then, Swetha is satisfied spending her days working on her degree, reading, and being a tea enthusiast.
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR NAN BOYD:
Swetha wrote “Her Body, But Not Her Choice” in Women and Gender Studies 300: Gender, Race, and Nation - the Women and Gender Studies department’s GWAR class, a writing-intensive seminar required for all WGS majors and minors. During the semester, students develop skills to write a medium-length research paper by conducting research on a topic of their choice that relates to the politics of gender, race, and nation. Students are also required to effectively utilize an interdisciplinary, intersectional, and transnational analysis in relation to their topic. This isn’t easy! Many students interpret the transnational analysis to be about “over there” or outside the national boundaries of the United States, but a transnational analysis interrogates the function of the nation or nationalism in the production of gendered and radicalized meanings, which is what Swetha Pottam’s essay does so incisively — and well.
Her womb and body are no longer hers to imagine.
They have been turned over to the imagination of others,
and those imaginings are then allowed to reign over her body as law.
-Drucillia Cornell, The Imaginary Domain
They have been turned over to the imagination of others,
and those imaginings are then allowed to reign over her body as law.
-Drucillia Cornell, The Imaginary Domain
Trigger Warning: Violent Patriarchy
India has always been a site of unique cultural practices and beautiful festivals that have sparked curiosity across the world. However, the reality of female sexuality in India is not as beautiful. Although Indian society reveres women and considers them equal, they are equal only in name. Contemporary female sexuality in India is repressed and ignored for the benefit of heteropatriarchy and the Indian nation-state. Women’s subjugation is enforced by a prevailing gender hierarchy in both the public and private spheres and is influenced by cultural practices, nationalism, and colonialism.
When Great Britain colonized India, they utilized a fraternalist approach to colonial administration, which enabled the subjugation of female sexuality (Keating 133). To engender a fraternalist relationship between the colonial administrators and leaders in Hindu and Muslim communities across the country, they first established the system of “personal law.” This system of personal law “was the codification and classification of marriage, divorce, and inheritance practices as laws that were based on each community’s religious texts,” (Keating 133). This system was unfair to women because it elevated religious laws over customary laws, which would have been more favorable to women.
After India gained independence, the Constituent Assembly recognized women’s equality because of women’s contributions to the nationalist movement; however, the Assembly’s promises of equality were never fully realized. When the time came to form the Constitution and create a mode of governance free from British involvement, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Indian prime minister, made it clear that he wanted to form an egalitarian democracy in which discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and caste would be eliminated (Keating 130). Yet, after India gained independence, the new constitution was modeled after the systems of British colonial rule (strong centralized governance vs. the traditional Indian village level of governance) and Western political theory (Keating 135). They upheld the system of personal law, which separated the public and private spheres. The notion of equality and freedom operated in the public sphere while gendered relations of domination and subordination were practiced and even encouraged in the private sphere. By maintaining the system of personal law after achieving independence from Great Britain, avenues of discrimination against women remained open.
Simultaneously, the postcolonial sexual contract was formed, and thereby the subjugation of female sexuality was maintained for the sake of a unified state. The postcolonial sexual contract is derived from political theorist Thomas Hobbes’ “social contract” which asserts, “legitimate political authority is grounded in an agreement among equals in which citizens consent to exchange their natural freedom for the order and protection a government supposedly can provide,” (Keating 131). Carole Pateman, the author of The Sexual Contract, argues that in Western liberal democratic theory, the contract is a sexual contract as well as a social one.
The postcolonial sexual contract established a gender hierarchy and the legal and social subordination of women in the public and private sphere. The framers of the Indian constitution were aware of the failures of Western democracies to include minority groups and women and vowed that they would not do the same. Delegates understood that to create a democracy that serves all the people, they need “social, political, and economic justice for women” (Keating 134). Where did this go wrong? Delegates passed a legally enforceable fundamental rights measure that promoted equality among the sexes and barred discrimination on the basis of sex, race, religion, and caste. After enacting the measure, the Assembly had to decide what kind of state this free India would be. Nehru argued for a strong centralized state. Gandhi argued for a decentralized state to stay in line with the Indian practice of decentralized village-level governance (Keating 134). Despite dissent, the Assembly created a strong centralized government whose framework was drawn upon the British mode of colonial administration. The Assembly wanted the authority of the new Indian state to be respected, so they employed a strategy that returned to the familiar rhetoric of fraternity that the colonial administration relied upon to create consent and compliance within the nation.
Women and minorities suffered for the sake of a centralized government and unified state. Personal law detractors passed reforms that would end or relieve women’s subordination. For instance, in the 1930s, feminist nationalists pressed for changes to the Hindu personal law, and an INC Committee designed the Hindu Code Bill that would have introduced major reforms to laws regarding marriage and inheritance (Keating 139). Assembly members overturned the measures that were previously passed to protect women’s rights and the political inclusion of minorities. Despite the gains that the Constituent Assembly made regarding gender equality, the Assembly’s debates over proposed alterations of the personal law system solidified control over women in the interest of preserving fraternal solidarity. This was the impetus of the postcolonial sexual contract, and it is how discrimination against women has persisted despite the Assembly’s attempts to incorporate gender equality within the Indian political framework.
Assembly members argued that removing the measures was necessary to build a “homogenous” political sphere (Keating 137). Keating states, “The majority Hindus cast themselves in the role of the ‘responsible, easy-going, benevolent, and self-sacrificing elder brother, indulgent, protective, and accommodating of even the excessive and unreasonable demands of his younger and weaker brothers, the minorities’” (Keating 137). This is similar to the white savior complex because the majority Hindus took it upon themselves to “protect” women and minorities, similar to how white men decided to save people of color from themselves. By casting themselves in this role of the benevolent elder brother, they masked the fact that they were taking away promised power to women and minority groups, which impacted the control of women’s sexuality.
Under colonialism and anti-colonial nationalism, the politics of respectable sexuality served to reinscribe older social hierarchies. “Indian” tradition dictated the construction of gender and the construction of women in post-colonial society. (Sinha 1). After India achieved its independence, the nation and the discourse of sexualities worked together to create a new social arrangement. The new sexual discourse was crucial to forming the image of the modern Indian nation-state. This discourse not only suppressed “abnormal” sexuality but also heightened “normal” sexuality (Sinha 2). As a result, the “Indian” image prioritized family and heteronormative relationships above all other relationships. It was the building block of Indian society.
The rhetoric regarding female sexuality from 1891 to 1929 changed and matured into a force with institutional strength that maintained the “Hindu” and “Indian” image and restructured sexual relations that also upheld hierarchies of gender, caste, and class. Not only was this enacted through colonial administration, but it was also established through the legal realm as well. The “woman question” plagued nineteenth century Bengal but was settled when middle classes “accepted dichotomized lifestyle distinctions, i.e., home/world, spiritual/material, feminine/masculine” (Drew 31). Even though these distinctions were meant to express differences in equality, they worked to strengthen traditional gender roles and to further disadvantage women. Male agency continued to control women’s sexuality due to Britain’s policy of personal law. This subjection of female sexuality was evident in reproductive practices.
Women were regarded as objects or passive beings in patriarchal systems. A legal case during Indian colonial times illustrates this perfectly. Chew, the author of The Case of the “Unchaste” Widow, argues that women in a colonial setting were at the intersection of contested space between domination and subordination. English and Indian men debated womanhood and female sexuality (31). Chew’s analysis of the Kery Kotilany v. Moniram Kolita case exemplifies the aforementioned claim. In this lawsuit, a Bengali woman took a lover after the death of her husband, and subsequently bore a child. Her deceased husband’s cousin sued her, claiming that she violated the chastity she was supposed to uphold after her husband’s passing. The cousin hoped to overturn Anglo-Hindu legislation that allowed propertied widows to remain on the land of their former husband. These property laws were developed because colonialism changed the way in which people sustained themselves. Specifically, traditional joint farms disbanded and men had to seek wage-based employment. As a result, many resource-less widows were left destitute. Only the widows with resourceful relatives were able to exploit the obligations of “maintenance” (a system that required the heirs of the family to look after the widows and allow them to live the same life they lived prior to the dissolution of their marriage) and assert claims to their deceased husband’s property (Chew 33). However, a widow’s unchastity nullified her property rights. This case highlighted the sexual double standard placed on men and women. The notion of an “unchaste” man was unheard of because chastity was and still is a term “used to describe socially unsanctioned sexual activity by a woman” (Chew 32). The notion of chastity and unchastity dictated a woman’s life, whereas for a man, it mattered little. Sexual morality does not exist for men, and male-widowers were encouraged to remarry. Female purity was idealized in a patriarchal value system. “Unlike men, the case literature clearly establishes that for women, sexuality was intrinsically linked to property rights” (Chew 32). This case also highlighted how women were seen as property.
Culturally prescribed gender roles bind women and their bodies. The body is the site of emotions and experiences and also a site that is subject to social, political, and cultural constructions and regulations (Bannerji 124). This is due to a prevailing gender hierarchy that asserts itself in the public and private sphere. Women with more than two children are forbidden to receive anti-poverty subsidies and medical benefits (Hussain 36). The women’s movement advocated that reproductive rights were fundamental and included intimate issues such as their sexuality, whom to marry, how many children women choose to have, and how to protect their health. However, the unfortunate reality is that women often have no choice and their bodies “become pawns in the struggle between the individual, the family, and the state,” (Hussain 30). Female sexuality is controlled at the macro-level by policies and programs, while at the micro-level, it is controlled by male domination.
The entire reproductive process, from conception to childbirth, is shaped by patriarchy and male domination in the private sphere. For instance, in a study done by Sabiha Hussain, when women were asked about their family size preference, the majority of women negated the idea of a “desired family size” and said that expressing their desires does not necessarily mean it will be implemented (35). In this way, women’s concerns are ignored and invalidated for the preservation of the family.
Sons are considered essential for social and economic security, social dignity, and to perform the last rites for parents. In India, the last rites is a ritual reserved primarily for the sons of the family. Especially when cultural norms require a great deal of expenditure on the part of the girl’s family. For these many reasons, sons are preferential. If a woman fails to have a son, the husband has legitimate cause to divorce her and seek a second marriage (Hussain 29). Society accuses the wife of failing at her primary duty, and allows the husband to shed his marital vows. In some places, like Kallar, Tamil Nadu female infanticide is common practice. People in rural India comment on how easy it is to “set women free” soon as they were born;
The methods were simple, they told me with candor. A little spoon of steaming hot curry down the infant’s throat. A drop of milk from a poisonous plant with a little sugar so the baby doesn’t spit it up. A few grains of rice, mixed with a pinch of snuff (Hedge 28).
Female infanticide is often reported as a natural death so no concrete numbers exist, even though they have been reported in the northern state of Rajasthan and the southern state of Tamil Nadu (Hedge 29). Since these incidents happen in rural areas, police intervention is scarce. The only people that keep tabs on incidents of female infanticide are social workers, who classify “high-risk” cases and counsel the women regarding female infanticide. The “high-risk” classification has nothing to do with the health of the baby but rather the willingness of the mother to commit female infanticide (Hedge 29). Women who are considered “high-risk” are women who are older, are widows, have survived abandonment, have two or more daughters, or have only one son.
Women are expected to be caretakers and birthing machines and are discouraged from discovering or advocating for their sexuality. If a woman cannot conceive a son, she is either forced to repeatedly conceive, risk her health, and then care for more children then she can adequately support, or she can take action and assert her agency, but become ostracized in the process. Take the case of Shabana, a 38-year-old illiterate housewife. She was married when she was 17, she had five children by the time she moved to Delhi with her husband, and she had herself sterilized to prevent further children because she did not know of any other birth control methods. When Shabana went back to her village, her family and friends shunned her for getting a sterilization. She was not allowed to perform namaz (prayer) and was socially alienated (Hussain 38). A woman’s worth is dependent on the number of boys she brings into the world.
Sterilization and the resulting estrangement are preferential to horrors demonstrated in another one of Hussain’s case studies. The woman’s husband’s desire to have a son can sometimes be so strong that it comes at the cost of her life (Hussain 40). This tale was recounted to Hussain not by the woman afflicted but by her mother. Kanti, a 29-year-old, had three daughters and her husband wanted a son. She conceived again and her husband took her to the health clinic to determine the sex of the fetus (female) and her husband forced her to have an abortion, even though she was in the second trimester of the pregnancy. She conceived again, and when her husband took her to the clinic and learned the baby was female, he forced her to have another abortion. Kanti resisted because she was already weak and anemic from the prior abortion, but to no avail. Her husband took her to a private clinic for the operation. Kanti never came back from the operation table (Hussain 40). The toxic desire for a male heir, at whatever cost, further illustrates that women are seen simply as birthing machines, and their desires are not heeded or heard.
Women have few options for reproductive health and lower-class women are even less likely to know about different types of birth control methods. The preference and desire for male heirs is so strong that it shapes whatever remaining agency women have regarding their sexuality (Hedge 29). Whether a woman exhausts her body to provide a son and fulfill the “duty” of a woman, or she tries to protect her body from bearing more children, her agency is forever shaped by the overwhelming desire to have male heirs. Lower-class women who live in the slums of Delhi or Kolkata, or women who live in rural areas, are uneducated regarding different forms of birth control and often think that their only options are permanent sterilization or condoms. If men refuse to use condoms, women are left with few options due to lack of information. Even the women who are aware of various birth control methods are often abused for asserting agency and control over their bodies.
The Indian gender hierarchy permeates every aspect of a woman’s life, devaluing women by prioritizing the interests of the family and insisting on male heirs. The hegemony portrays women who cannot bear sons as occupying one side of a binary—the poor victim or the cruel murderer. However, women have constructed modes of survival that do not conform with this dichotomy, despite it being the preferred narrative of the international and Indian media (Hedge 29). Women commit acts of resistance, but they also comply with the patriarchy in order to survive in a society that considers them voiceless and a financial drain on the family. The story of Jaya, a woman from Kallar (a rural area in Tamil Nadu), exemplifies this paradox. She resisted her husband’s desire to commit infanticide but eventually succumbed to his wishes. She felt shame at what she had done, but her mind was resolute. “I will give him his male child,” Jaya says (Hedge 31). Jaya’s resolve is similar to that of Kumari, who gave birth to five daughters but only raised three. Kumari has been ostracized for her inability to produce a boy. As a result, she continues to kill her girl children to prevent further ridicule and alienation. She relays her anxieties quite aptly in front of her husband, who clearly cannot be bothered with “women’s talk.” Kumari says,
India has always been a site of unique cultural practices and beautiful festivals that have sparked curiosity across the world. However, the reality of female sexuality in India is not as beautiful. Although Indian society reveres women and considers them equal, they are equal only in name. Contemporary female sexuality in India is repressed and ignored for the benefit of heteropatriarchy and the Indian nation-state. Women’s subjugation is enforced by a prevailing gender hierarchy in both the public and private spheres and is influenced by cultural practices, nationalism, and colonialism.
When Great Britain colonized India, they utilized a fraternalist approach to colonial administration, which enabled the subjugation of female sexuality (Keating 133). To engender a fraternalist relationship between the colonial administrators and leaders in Hindu and Muslim communities across the country, they first established the system of “personal law.” This system of personal law “was the codification and classification of marriage, divorce, and inheritance practices as laws that were based on each community’s religious texts,” (Keating 133). This system was unfair to women because it elevated religious laws over customary laws, which would have been more favorable to women.
After India gained independence, the Constituent Assembly recognized women’s equality because of women’s contributions to the nationalist movement; however, the Assembly’s promises of equality were never fully realized. When the time came to form the Constitution and create a mode of governance free from British involvement, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Indian prime minister, made it clear that he wanted to form an egalitarian democracy in which discrimination on the basis of sex, religion, and caste would be eliminated (Keating 130). Yet, after India gained independence, the new constitution was modeled after the systems of British colonial rule (strong centralized governance vs. the traditional Indian village level of governance) and Western political theory (Keating 135). They upheld the system of personal law, which separated the public and private spheres. The notion of equality and freedom operated in the public sphere while gendered relations of domination and subordination were practiced and even encouraged in the private sphere. By maintaining the system of personal law after achieving independence from Great Britain, avenues of discrimination against women remained open.
Simultaneously, the postcolonial sexual contract was formed, and thereby the subjugation of female sexuality was maintained for the sake of a unified state. The postcolonial sexual contract is derived from political theorist Thomas Hobbes’ “social contract” which asserts, “legitimate political authority is grounded in an agreement among equals in which citizens consent to exchange their natural freedom for the order and protection a government supposedly can provide,” (Keating 131). Carole Pateman, the author of The Sexual Contract, argues that in Western liberal democratic theory, the contract is a sexual contract as well as a social one.
The postcolonial sexual contract established a gender hierarchy and the legal and social subordination of women in the public and private sphere. The framers of the Indian constitution were aware of the failures of Western democracies to include minority groups and women and vowed that they would not do the same. Delegates understood that to create a democracy that serves all the people, they need “social, political, and economic justice for women” (Keating 134). Where did this go wrong? Delegates passed a legally enforceable fundamental rights measure that promoted equality among the sexes and barred discrimination on the basis of sex, race, religion, and caste. After enacting the measure, the Assembly had to decide what kind of state this free India would be. Nehru argued for a strong centralized state. Gandhi argued for a decentralized state to stay in line with the Indian practice of decentralized village-level governance (Keating 134). Despite dissent, the Assembly created a strong centralized government whose framework was drawn upon the British mode of colonial administration. The Assembly wanted the authority of the new Indian state to be respected, so they employed a strategy that returned to the familiar rhetoric of fraternity that the colonial administration relied upon to create consent and compliance within the nation.
Women and minorities suffered for the sake of a centralized government and unified state. Personal law detractors passed reforms that would end or relieve women’s subordination. For instance, in the 1930s, feminist nationalists pressed for changes to the Hindu personal law, and an INC Committee designed the Hindu Code Bill that would have introduced major reforms to laws regarding marriage and inheritance (Keating 139). Assembly members overturned the measures that were previously passed to protect women’s rights and the political inclusion of minorities. Despite the gains that the Constituent Assembly made regarding gender equality, the Assembly’s debates over proposed alterations of the personal law system solidified control over women in the interest of preserving fraternal solidarity. This was the impetus of the postcolonial sexual contract, and it is how discrimination against women has persisted despite the Assembly’s attempts to incorporate gender equality within the Indian political framework.
Assembly members argued that removing the measures was necessary to build a “homogenous” political sphere (Keating 137). Keating states, “The majority Hindus cast themselves in the role of the ‘responsible, easy-going, benevolent, and self-sacrificing elder brother, indulgent, protective, and accommodating of even the excessive and unreasonable demands of his younger and weaker brothers, the minorities’” (Keating 137). This is similar to the white savior complex because the majority Hindus took it upon themselves to “protect” women and minorities, similar to how white men decided to save people of color from themselves. By casting themselves in this role of the benevolent elder brother, they masked the fact that they were taking away promised power to women and minority groups, which impacted the control of women’s sexuality.
Under colonialism and anti-colonial nationalism, the politics of respectable sexuality served to reinscribe older social hierarchies. “Indian” tradition dictated the construction of gender and the construction of women in post-colonial society. (Sinha 1). After India achieved its independence, the nation and the discourse of sexualities worked together to create a new social arrangement. The new sexual discourse was crucial to forming the image of the modern Indian nation-state. This discourse not only suppressed “abnormal” sexuality but also heightened “normal” sexuality (Sinha 2). As a result, the “Indian” image prioritized family and heteronormative relationships above all other relationships. It was the building block of Indian society.
The rhetoric regarding female sexuality from 1891 to 1929 changed and matured into a force with institutional strength that maintained the “Hindu” and “Indian” image and restructured sexual relations that also upheld hierarchies of gender, caste, and class. Not only was this enacted through colonial administration, but it was also established through the legal realm as well. The “woman question” plagued nineteenth century Bengal but was settled when middle classes “accepted dichotomized lifestyle distinctions, i.e., home/world, spiritual/material, feminine/masculine” (Drew 31). Even though these distinctions were meant to express differences in equality, they worked to strengthen traditional gender roles and to further disadvantage women. Male agency continued to control women’s sexuality due to Britain’s policy of personal law. This subjection of female sexuality was evident in reproductive practices.
Women were regarded as objects or passive beings in patriarchal systems. A legal case during Indian colonial times illustrates this perfectly. Chew, the author of The Case of the “Unchaste” Widow, argues that women in a colonial setting were at the intersection of contested space between domination and subordination. English and Indian men debated womanhood and female sexuality (31). Chew’s analysis of the Kery Kotilany v. Moniram Kolita case exemplifies the aforementioned claim. In this lawsuit, a Bengali woman took a lover after the death of her husband, and subsequently bore a child. Her deceased husband’s cousin sued her, claiming that she violated the chastity she was supposed to uphold after her husband’s passing. The cousin hoped to overturn Anglo-Hindu legislation that allowed propertied widows to remain on the land of their former husband. These property laws were developed because colonialism changed the way in which people sustained themselves. Specifically, traditional joint farms disbanded and men had to seek wage-based employment. As a result, many resource-less widows were left destitute. Only the widows with resourceful relatives were able to exploit the obligations of “maintenance” (a system that required the heirs of the family to look after the widows and allow them to live the same life they lived prior to the dissolution of their marriage) and assert claims to their deceased husband’s property (Chew 33). However, a widow’s unchastity nullified her property rights. This case highlighted the sexual double standard placed on men and women. The notion of an “unchaste” man was unheard of because chastity was and still is a term “used to describe socially unsanctioned sexual activity by a woman” (Chew 32). The notion of chastity and unchastity dictated a woman’s life, whereas for a man, it mattered little. Sexual morality does not exist for men, and male-widowers were encouraged to remarry. Female purity was idealized in a patriarchal value system. “Unlike men, the case literature clearly establishes that for women, sexuality was intrinsically linked to property rights” (Chew 32). This case also highlighted how women were seen as property.
Culturally prescribed gender roles bind women and their bodies. The body is the site of emotions and experiences and also a site that is subject to social, political, and cultural constructions and regulations (Bannerji 124). This is due to a prevailing gender hierarchy that asserts itself in the public and private sphere. Women with more than two children are forbidden to receive anti-poverty subsidies and medical benefits (Hussain 36). The women’s movement advocated that reproductive rights were fundamental and included intimate issues such as their sexuality, whom to marry, how many children women choose to have, and how to protect their health. However, the unfortunate reality is that women often have no choice and their bodies “become pawns in the struggle between the individual, the family, and the state,” (Hussain 30). Female sexuality is controlled at the macro-level by policies and programs, while at the micro-level, it is controlled by male domination.
The entire reproductive process, from conception to childbirth, is shaped by patriarchy and male domination in the private sphere. For instance, in a study done by Sabiha Hussain, when women were asked about their family size preference, the majority of women negated the idea of a “desired family size” and said that expressing their desires does not necessarily mean it will be implemented (35). In this way, women’s concerns are ignored and invalidated for the preservation of the family.
Sons are considered essential for social and economic security, social dignity, and to perform the last rites for parents. In India, the last rites is a ritual reserved primarily for the sons of the family. Especially when cultural norms require a great deal of expenditure on the part of the girl’s family. For these many reasons, sons are preferential. If a woman fails to have a son, the husband has legitimate cause to divorce her and seek a second marriage (Hussain 29). Society accuses the wife of failing at her primary duty, and allows the husband to shed his marital vows. In some places, like Kallar, Tamil Nadu female infanticide is common practice. People in rural India comment on how easy it is to “set women free” soon as they were born;
The methods were simple, they told me with candor. A little spoon of steaming hot curry down the infant’s throat. A drop of milk from a poisonous plant with a little sugar so the baby doesn’t spit it up. A few grains of rice, mixed with a pinch of snuff (Hedge 28).
Female infanticide is often reported as a natural death so no concrete numbers exist, even though they have been reported in the northern state of Rajasthan and the southern state of Tamil Nadu (Hedge 29). Since these incidents happen in rural areas, police intervention is scarce. The only people that keep tabs on incidents of female infanticide are social workers, who classify “high-risk” cases and counsel the women regarding female infanticide. The “high-risk” classification has nothing to do with the health of the baby but rather the willingness of the mother to commit female infanticide (Hedge 29). Women who are considered “high-risk” are women who are older, are widows, have survived abandonment, have two or more daughters, or have only one son.
Women are expected to be caretakers and birthing machines and are discouraged from discovering or advocating for their sexuality. If a woman cannot conceive a son, she is either forced to repeatedly conceive, risk her health, and then care for more children then she can adequately support, or she can take action and assert her agency, but become ostracized in the process. Take the case of Shabana, a 38-year-old illiterate housewife. She was married when she was 17, she had five children by the time she moved to Delhi with her husband, and she had herself sterilized to prevent further children because she did not know of any other birth control methods. When Shabana went back to her village, her family and friends shunned her for getting a sterilization. She was not allowed to perform namaz (prayer) and was socially alienated (Hussain 38). A woman’s worth is dependent on the number of boys she brings into the world.
Sterilization and the resulting estrangement are preferential to horrors demonstrated in another one of Hussain’s case studies. The woman’s husband’s desire to have a son can sometimes be so strong that it comes at the cost of her life (Hussain 40). This tale was recounted to Hussain not by the woman afflicted but by her mother. Kanti, a 29-year-old, had three daughters and her husband wanted a son. She conceived again and her husband took her to the health clinic to determine the sex of the fetus (female) and her husband forced her to have an abortion, even though she was in the second trimester of the pregnancy. She conceived again, and when her husband took her to the clinic and learned the baby was female, he forced her to have another abortion. Kanti resisted because she was already weak and anemic from the prior abortion, but to no avail. Her husband took her to a private clinic for the operation. Kanti never came back from the operation table (Hussain 40). The toxic desire for a male heir, at whatever cost, further illustrates that women are seen simply as birthing machines, and their desires are not heeded or heard.
Women have few options for reproductive health and lower-class women are even less likely to know about different types of birth control methods. The preference and desire for male heirs is so strong that it shapes whatever remaining agency women have regarding their sexuality (Hedge 29). Whether a woman exhausts her body to provide a son and fulfill the “duty” of a woman, or she tries to protect her body from bearing more children, her agency is forever shaped by the overwhelming desire to have male heirs. Lower-class women who live in the slums of Delhi or Kolkata, or women who live in rural areas, are uneducated regarding different forms of birth control and often think that their only options are permanent sterilization or condoms. If men refuse to use condoms, women are left with few options due to lack of information. Even the women who are aware of various birth control methods are often abused for asserting agency and control over their bodies.
The Indian gender hierarchy permeates every aspect of a woman’s life, devaluing women by prioritizing the interests of the family and insisting on male heirs. The hegemony portrays women who cannot bear sons as occupying one side of a binary—the poor victim or the cruel murderer. However, women have constructed modes of survival that do not conform with this dichotomy, despite it being the preferred narrative of the international and Indian media (Hedge 29). Women commit acts of resistance, but they also comply with the patriarchy in order to survive in a society that considers them voiceless and a financial drain on the family. The story of Jaya, a woman from Kallar (a rural area in Tamil Nadu), exemplifies this paradox. She resisted her husband’s desire to commit infanticide but eventually succumbed to his wishes. She felt shame at what she had done, but her mind was resolute. “I will give him his male child,” Jaya says (Hedge 31). Jaya’s resolve is similar to that of Kumari, who gave birth to five daughters but only raised three. Kumari has been ostracized for her inability to produce a boy. As a result, she continues to kill her girl children to prevent further ridicule and alienation. She relays her anxieties quite aptly in front of her husband, who clearly cannot be bothered with “women’s talk.” Kumari says,
I have given birth to five girls, this is my third living daughter. I am a totally useless, uneducated woman, but I am angry...If I kill, then they say she has no conscience. If I don’t, they ridicule me that I have all girls, good for nothing girls…Because of this girl, I am humiliated every day. And when she gets married, they’ll taunt and harass her because she has no brothers... Listen I don’t give a damn about my health, I will have another and another till I have a son (Hedge 32).
While one may view Kumari as someone overwrought with internalized misogyny, Hedge sees her as a liberator, saving her children from their inevitable suffering. In this way, she and Jaya construct themselves as saviors, sparing their girl children from a miserable fate. This is Jaya and Kumari’s mode of survival, and it defies the poor victim/cruel murderer binary.
Cultural roles bind women and their bodies. Female sexuality is shaped by the macro policies that pave the way for discrimination in the private sphere. Their bodies are bound by the toxic desire for a male heir, and their sexuality is shaped by male agency. Through cultural practices, a prevailing gender hierarchy, and discriminatory policies, female sexuality is subjugated in both public and private spheres. Women do not have agency over their bodies in a world that demands sons. When left with little choice, women do what they can to survive. This problem is imbedded within the framework of Indian society and severely impacts India’s women and their freedom. This issue will not be resolved without a radical paradigm shift.
Cultural roles bind women and their bodies. Female sexuality is shaped by the macro policies that pave the way for discrimination in the private sphere. Their bodies are bound by the toxic desire for a male heir, and their sexuality is shaped by male agency. Through cultural practices, a prevailing gender hierarchy, and discriminatory policies, female sexuality is subjugated in both public and private spheres. Women do not have agency over their bodies in a world that demands sons. When left with little choice, women do what they can to survive. This problem is imbedded within the framework of Indian society and severely impacts India’s women and their freedom. This issue will not be resolved without a radical paradigm shift.
Bannerji, H., & Bagchi, J. (1997). “Modernization, Poverty, Gender and Women's Health in Calcutta's Khidirpur Slum.” Canadian Woman Studies, 17(2), 122.
Chew, D. (1993). “The Case of the ‘Unchaste’ Widow: Constructing Gender in 19th-century Bengal (Kery Kolitany v Moniram Kolita case)." Resources for Feminist Research, 22(3), 31-40.
Hegde, R. S. (1999). “Sons and M(others): Framing the Maternal Body and the Politics of Reproduction in a South Indian Context.” Women's Studies in Communication, 22(1), 25-44.
Hussain, S. (2001). “Do Women really Have a Voice? Reproductive Behavior and Practices of Two Religious Communities.” Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 7(4),
Keating, C. (2007). “Framing the Postcolonial Sexual Contract: Democracy, Fraternalism, and State Authority in India.” Hypatia, 22(4), 130-145.
Sinha, M. (1995). “Nationalism and Respectable Sexuality in India.” Genders, (21), 30.
Celine Margaret Wuu
The Bay Area Urban Indian Community
The Bay Area Urban Indian Community
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Celine Wuu is a sophomore at SF State pursuing a major in Journalism. She primarily grew up Santa Rosa, California. In her free time she likes to photograph the unseen, unnoticed, and unusual.
COMMENTS FROM LECTURER, PHILIP KLASKY:
Celine Wu's paper was inspired by the photographs and historical documentation by Ilka Hartman from her experiences of the American Indian occupation of Alcatraz Island. Her work reflects the capacity of our students to go beyond the requirements of the classroom and fully engage in important and relevant issues.
Celine Wuu is a sophomore at SF State pursuing a major in Journalism. She primarily grew up Santa Rosa, California. In her free time she likes to photograph the unseen, unnoticed, and unusual.
COMMENTS FROM LECTURER, PHILIP KLASKY:
Celine Wu's paper was inspired by the photographs and historical documentation by Ilka Hartman from her experiences of the American Indian occupation of Alcatraz Island. Her work reflects the capacity of our students to go beyond the requirements of the classroom and fully engage in important and relevant issues.
Ilka Hartmann outside her home in Bolinas, Ca. December 5th, 2016.
Introduction
The Bay Area in northern California is land originally inhabited by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe and is known to be filled with cultural diversity and political and social activism. During the 1950s, the U.S. government partook in a mass relocation of Native Americans from reservations to urban areas, especially to the Bay Area. Relocation was used primarily for two reasons: to assimilate them into mainstream American culture, and to terminate Native American reservations - the only land still owned by Native American sovereign nations. In order to lure Native Americans from their homes on the reservation, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a department of the U.S. government that oversaw the relations, needs, and issues between indigenous nations and the federal government, promised more economic opportunities, housing, and a life without poverty. Going hand in hand with the relocation and termination program was the B.I.A.’s 1952 program called the American Indian Voluntary Relocation. “The program was a simple process in which the B.I.A. offered one-way tickets to jobs or training in a selected set of cities including San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose in California…” (Willard 30). That specific program was later known as the Employment Assistance Program. However, most of the time it resulted in Native Americans becoming stuck in the poorest sections of the cities with temporary employment and life no better, if not worse, than on the reservation. Another B.I.A. sponsored program was the The Adult Vocational Training Program, which offered wide educational opportunities for young people and was first broadly implemented in 1957. It brought Indians between ages of 18 to 35 to schools where they receive training in specific marketable skills (Ablon, 362).
This mass relocation of Native Americans into urban areas and the grim realities once they arrived, mixed with the social activism climate of the 1960s, resulted in the creation of the Urban Indian Community. Troy Johnson in his paper, ”The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Roots of American Indian Activism,” claims that an important part of the termination of reservation Indians was that it would give rise to supra-tribal Indian activist organizations and contribute particularly to the nineteenth month occupation (63). They were responsible for the takeover of Alcatraz and helped with the resurgence of Native American pride. This paper will provide insight on the creation and role of the Urban Indian Community focusing primarily in the Bay Area, stemming from the displacement of thousands of Indians from the relocation and termination period in the 1950s, the role of urban organizations, their involvement in the Alcatraz takeover, and resurgence of Native American pride.
Research Methods
To begin research I used the SF State library website to access the multiple journal databases offered. In particularly, was the use of the JSTOR database to find journals, articles, and excerpts of books providing information about Indian relocation in the 1950s and the Urban Indian Community in the Bay Area along with the various organizations involved.
Another part of my research which was vital to to put these past events into perspective, was an extensive interview with the Alcatraz Occupation photographer, Ilka Hartmann. I had formerly met Hartmann in my American Indian Studies class where she presented her work to the class on the Alcatraz Occupation of 1969. From there I had the opportunity to meet up with her two more times: first, at an exhibit in Los Gatos on Indian Relocation called Cement Prairie in which some of her photography on reservations were displayed; and second, at the local library in Bolinas, California where she currently resides. To start the interview Hartmann showed me original prints of her photographs throughout her career which ranged from life on Indian Reservations, to the Black Panther Movement, and of course the Alcatraz Occupation. We then proceeded to discuss the Urban Indian Community and its relation to the activism of Native Americans in the Bay Area ultimately leading to the Alcatraz takeover.
Listening to Hartmann talk about the events leading up to the Alcatraz takeover and her role as a photographer documenting Native American issues served as a key research for this paper. Not only was I able to discover what an amazing person and photographer Ilka Hartmann is, but also understand that time period more in depth from a first hand source.
I. Background on Relocation and Programs in the 1950s
Throughout history, the purpose of Indian relocation by Congress has had fluctuating inclinations between eliminating Native American nations or seemingly helping them. After the federal government and the American public were presented with the study that Native Americans on reservations were the poorest among the United States, the government thought that by assimilating them into society was a way of leading them to a better life. Larry Burt tells in his paper “Roots of the Native American Urban Experience: Relocation Policy in the 1950s;” “The famous investigation of conditions on reservations and critique of federal Indian Policy published in 1928 known as the Meriam Report… urged the government to help Indians in making the transition” to urban areas (85). But by the 1950s the attitude Congress had toward Native Americans was that “in 1953, [they] formally endorsed the policy of termination and in succeeding years enacted laws to withdraw federal supervision from a number of tribes;” in that way trying to end federal recognition and the legal existence of native peoples ( Prucha, 346). William Burt’s definition of relocation defined in a broad manner helps to summarize the idea of the word; it means integrating Native Americans into the mainstream legally, socially, and economically as well as an overall federal withdrawal from Indian affairs and services provided to Native Americans (86). In other words, it was used as a facade to terminate the existence of Native American nations.
Life on reservations was hard due to their isolation in mostly rural, impoverished, and desolated areas. Joan Arbon writes in her piece, American Indian Relocation: Problems of Dependency and Management in the City,
The Bay Area in northern California is land originally inhabited by the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe and is known to be filled with cultural diversity and political and social activism. During the 1950s, the U.S. government partook in a mass relocation of Native Americans from reservations to urban areas, especially to the Bay Area. Relocation was used primarily for two reasons: to assimilate them into mainstream American culture, and to terminate Native American reservations - the only land still owned by Native American sovereign nations. In order to lure Native Americans from their homes on the reservation, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, a department of the U.S. government that oversaw the relations, needs, and issues between indigenous nations and the federal government, promised more economic opportunities, housing, and a life without poverty. Going hand in hand with the relocation and termination program was the B.I.A.’s 1952 program called the American Indian Voluntary Relocation. “The program was a simple process in which the B.I.A. offered one-way tickets to jobs or training in a selected set of cities including San Francisco, Oakland, and San Jose in California…” (Willard 30). That specific program was later known as the Employment Assistance Program. However, most of the time it resulted in Native Americans becoming stuck in the poorest sections of the cities with temporary employment and life no better, if not worse, than on the reservation. Another B.I.A. sponsored program was the The Adult Vocational Training Program, which offered wide educational opportunities for young people and was first broadly implemented in 1957. It brought Indians between ages of 18 to 35 to schools where they receive training in specific marketable skills (Ablon, 362).
This mass relocation of Native Americans into urban areas and the grim realities once they arrived, mixed with the social activism climate of the 1960s, resulted in the creation of the Urban Indian Community. Troy Johnson in his paper, ”The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Roots of American Indian Activism,” claims that an important part of the termination of reservation Indians was that it would give rise to supra-tribal Indian activist organizations and contribute particularly to the nineteenth month occupation (63). They were responsible for the takeover of Alcatraz and helped with the resurgence of Native American pride. This paper will provide insight on the creation and role of the Urban Indian Community focusing primarily in the Bay Area, stemming from the displacement of thousands of Indians from the relocation and termination period in the 1950s, the role of urban organizations, their involvement in the Alcatraz takeover, and resurgence of Native American pride.
Research Methods
To begin research I used the SF State library website to access the multiple journal databases offered. In particularly, was the use of the JSTOR database to find journals, articles, and excerpts of books providing information about Indian relocation in the 1950s and the Urban Indian Community in the Bay Area along with the various organizations involved.
Another part of my research which was vital to to put these past events into perspective, was an extensive interview with the Alcatraz Occupation photographer, Ilka Hartmann. I had formerly met Hartmann in my American Indian Studies class where she presented her work to the class on the Alcatraz Occupation of 1969. From there I had the opportunity to meet up with her two more times: first, at an exhibit in Los Gatos on Indian Relocation called Cement Prairie in which some of her photography on reservations were displayed; and second, at the local library in Bolinas, California where she currently resides. To start the interview Hartmann showed me original prints of her photographs throughout her career which ranged from life on Indian Reservations, to the Black Panther Movement, and of course the Alcatraz Occupation. We then proceeded to discuss the Urban Indian Community and its relation to the activism of Native Americans in the Bay Area ultimately leading to the Alcatraz takeover.
Listening to Hartmann talk about the events leading up to the Alcatraz takeover and her role as a photographer documenting Native American issues served as a key research for this paper. Not only was I able to discover what an amazing person and photographer Ilka Hartmann is, but also understand that time period more in depth from a first hand source.
I. Background on Relocation and Programs in the 1950s
Throughout history, the purpose of Indian relocation by Congress has had fluctuating inclinations between eliminating Native American nations or seemingly helping them. After the federal government and the American public were presented with the study that Native Americans on reservations were the poorest among the United States, the government thought that by assimilating them into society was a way of leading them to a better life. Larry Burt tells in his paper “Roots of the Native American Urban Experience: Relocation Policy in the 1950s;” “The famous investigation of conditions on reservations and critique of federal Indian Policy published in 1928 known as the Meriam Report… urged the government to help Indians in making the transition” to urban areas (85). But by the 1950s the attitude Congress had toward Native Americans was that “in 1953, [they] formally endorsed the policy of termination and in succeeding years enacted laws to withdraw federal supervision from a number of tribes;” in that way trying to end federal recognition and the legal existence of native peoples ( Prucha, 346). William Burt’s definition of relocation defined in a broad manner helps to summarize the idea of the word; it means integrating Native Americans into the mainstream legally, socially, and economically as well as an overall federal withdrawal from Indian affairs and services provided to Native Americans (86). In other words, it was used as a facade to terminate the existence of Native American nations.
Life on reservations was hard due to their isolation in mostly rural, impoverished, and desolated areas. Joan Arbon writes in her piece, American Indian Relocation: Problems of Dependency and Management in the City,
Most Indian reservations are economically underdeveloped areas. The lack of steady employment opportunities and the prevalence of widespread social and domestic problems have motivated many persons to relocate to urban areas (362).
The federal government recognized this, so they created two programs to entice the Native Americans and targeting their youth into moving to certain chosen cities located far away from their reservation. First it was the Employment Assistance Program, which was formerly called the Voluntary Relocation Program. It began in 1952 and provided financial assistance for transportation off the reservation to one of the ten Field Relocation Offices throughout the country (which included two in the Bay Area and later three), maintenance and living expenses until the first wages are in hand, and other services including orientation, employment, housing and general counseling (Ablon, 362). These two relocation offices, were located in Oakland and San Jose, as well as later in San Francisco (Alden, Gundlach, 118). The following program, the Adult Vocational Training Program broadly implemented in 1957, was more successful in terms of the volume of Native Americans relocating to cities, and was directed at the younger generations. Described in the Introduction of this research paper as an educational program for Indian youth to acquire certain work skills, it displaced a lot of young indigenous people to the same vicinity, ultimately playing a key role in the organization of the Native Americans relocated from different tribes to the same urban areas, including the Bay Area.
It is also important to note that not all Native Americans in the Bay Area were relocated; some came to the area by choice. However, they were integrated and played an active role in the many Native American organizations that were formed.
The overall goal the U.S. government was trying to achieve through assimilation and relocation was the termination of Native American Nations. By moving the Native Americans out of their homes and traditional way of life to urban areas through the Adult Vocational Training Program and the Employment Assistance Program, they were more easily assimilated into American society and ideals. However, they underestimated the power of the Native American communities that would form, especially in the Bay Area.
II. The Beginnings of the Urban Indian Community and the Role of Organizations in the Bay Area
The influx of multiple indigenous peoples from different reservations suddenly concentrated in the same area within an urban setting became the starting point of creating a community of people, with a shared history of the colonization of their peoples. Referring to the Native American “RelocateEs, [they] exhibit a wide variety of tribal backgrounds, educational experiences, and histories of contact with whites” (Ablon, 363). In fact it is important to mention the
It is also important to note that not all Native Americans in the Bay Area were relocated; some came to the area by choice. However, they were integrated and played an active role in the many Native American organizations that were formed.
The overall goal the U.S. government was trying to achieve through assimilation and relocation was the termination of Native American Nations. By moving the Native Americans out of their homes and traditional way of life to urban areas through the Adult Vocational Training Program and the Employment Assistance Program, they were more easily assimilated into American society and ideals. However, they underestimated the power of the Native American communities that would form, especially in the Bay Area.
II. The Beginnings of the Urban Indian Community and the Role of Organizations in the Bay Area
The influx of multiple indigenous peoples from different reservations suddenly concentrated in the same area within an urban setting became the starting point of creating a community of people, with a shared history of the colonization of their peoples. Referring to the Native American “RelocateEs, [they] exhibit a wide variety of tribal backgrounds, educational experiences, and histories of contact with whites” (Ablon, 363). In fact it is important to mention the
salient characteristics of the Bay Area Indian Community… are multi-tribal and therefore multi-cultural; dispersed residentially; comprised of a network of individuals, families, and organizations’ that Susan Lobo describes in “Urban Clan Mothers: Key Households in Cities” (506).
Lobo also says taking people far from their original tribe lands helped bring multi-tribal communities together, ultimately leading to the organization of urban Indian communities (509). Before these organizations were formed, many of the relocated Native Americans found themselves in distant cities, ill prepared with multiple physical and mental disabilities such as poor eyesight and alcoholism, poor English, and insufficient funds and knowledge (Burt 90). Burt infers that this cultural dislocation was perhaps the greatest problem… cities represented a dramatic departure from the collective, tribal world to which most were accustomed” and this led to many becoming homesick for their families and communities” (90-91).
The government failed to provide the support they promised to relocated Indians, so they formed their own organizations known by their tribal names such as the Sioux Club or the Navajo Club. They also included sports, dance, and early urban powwow clubs. These clubs and organizations served as a safe place to describe the discrimination they faced and support one another. They would gather at the San Francisco Indian Center, along with the newly formed United Bay Indian Council headed by Adam Nordwall, also known as Adam Fortunate Eagle (Johnson, 65-67).
These characteristics of the various Bay Area Native American organizations mixed with the feeling of homesickness for their native land and tribe all came together to create the Intertribal Friendship House, which is based in Oakland, and like organizations, garnered to gathering the Native American together in the Bay Area. Ilka Hartmann explains:
The government failed to provide the support they promised to relocated Indians, so they formed their own organizations known by their tribal names such as the Sioux Club or the Navajo Club. They also included sports, dance, and early urban powwow clubs. These clubs and organizations served as a safe place to describe the discrimination they faced and support one another. They would gather at the San Francisco Indian Center, along with the newly formed United Bay Indian Council headed by Adam Nordwall, also known as Adam Fortunate Eagle (Johnson, 65-67).
These characteristics of the various Bay Area Native American organizations mixed with the feeling of homesickness for their native land and tribe all came together to create the Intertribal Friendship House, which is based in Oakland, and like organizations, garnered to gathering the Native American together in the Bay Area. Ilka Hartmann explains:
People were really lonely, they were homesick, and so they formed these little clubs such as the Hopi Club or the Navajo Club. So they started to get together. For instance, in Oakland, the [Intertribal] Friendship House was founded. For the first time, many tribes met each other because they were like foreign nations to each other -- different cultures, regalia, customs, and so on. And sometime around then, the term ‘intertribal’ was used and that is why it was called the Intertribal Friendship House (Hartmann, 2016).
The description that Hartmann provides summarizes these organizations and their uniqueness in one word - intertribal. Inter meaning between or amongst according to the Merriam Webster Dictionary, and tribal meaning in plural the members of the aboriginal people, in this case the multiple indigenous nations in the Bay Area. Put it together, and one gets the complete meaning of the friendship house between members of the aboriginal people. Because of these establishments centered around community building, it gave Native Americans there a sense of unity, and it eventually helped to lead them to take a public stand, despite the events of tragedy.
III. The Cultural Climate and Events at the End of the 1960s leading to the Alcatraz Occupation
In the late 1960s, there was a big push especially around the Bay Area colleges and universities, of young educated Indian students as well as other minority groups during 1969, whom began demanding that colleges offer courses which were relevant to them and their past. They now had the idea that creating social protests to bring attention to their demands were a possibility (Johnson, 66). During my interview with Ilka Hartmann, she went into depth about experiencing first hand the circumstances of the time period from a non-native perspective.
III. The Cultural Climate and Events at the End of the 1960s leading to the Alcatraz Occupation
In the late 1960s, there was a big push especially around the Bay Area colleges and universities, of young educated Indian students as well as other minority groups during 1969, whom began demanding that colleges offer courses which were relevant to them and their past. They now had the idea that creating social protests to bring attention to their demands were a possibility (Johnson, 66). During my interview with Ilka Hartmann, she went into depth about experiencing first hand the circumstances of the time period from a non-native perspective.
All the things that were happening in the 1960s like the demand for ethnic studies at the universities for people wanting to be recognized, Alcatraz had a lot to do with it. The original feeling was that we needed to stand up and we needed to support them (Hartmann, 2016).
The personal accounts of Ilka Hartmann experiencing the demand for ethnic studies and the social climate, was a large role in urging the Native American community to take a stand - one that would garner lots of media and national attention. However, the final straw that put the plans into motion was the burnt destruction of the San Francisco Indian Center, home to many organizations as mentioned before, including the United Bay Indian Council headed by Adam Fortunate Eagle. Now without a place for the council to meet, or the students to hold a forum for their new activist voices, Alcatraz would be the springboard in a combined effort at first, between the older Indian Council and young radical students activists. The occupation would last nineteen months and bring together Indian people from all over the western hemisphere (Johnson, 67).
However, throughout the 19-month occupation of Alcatraz which started in November 1969 (after two failed attempts), tensions started to grow between the council and the student committees. Ilka Hartmann recalls the way in which the attitude and overall atmosphere changed within the Native American community on Alcatraz.
However, throughout the 19-month occupation of Alcatraz which started in November 1969 (after two failed attempts), tensions started to grow between the council and the student committees. Ilka Hartmann recalls the way in which the attitude and overall atmosphere changed within the Native American community on Alcatraz.
It became a student thing; Don’t trust anyone over thirty. There was this whole thing, and everyone was dressed differently wearing army jackets and long hair. They wanted to be revolutionary at that time (Hartmann, 2016).
Although tensions did arise between the two demographic groups, the main point of the Alcatraz Occupation of 1969, was that it stemmed from the Native American Community in the Bay area. Many times the American Indian Movement has been mistakenly credited for the takeover; and Hartmann clarifies the roots of the Alcatraz Occupation.
Really the occupation came from the Indian community, not from the American Indian Movement. A.I.M. barely existed, it was founded a little later. It came all out of the people from the Friendship House. All the Oakland Indians, San Jose Indians, San Francisco Indians, they all came together. It came from the Indian Urban Community. It came from those people (Hartmann, 2016).
The role of the Urban Indian Community in the Bay Area was significantly unaccredited for the huge part they played in the Alcatraz takeover. To shed a little more light on their influence over this important event in modern Native American history, Hartmann disclosed the fact that the most prominent document of the occupation, the Alcatraz Proclamation of 1969, in which Richard Oakes is filmed reading on live television, was in fact written by Adam Fortunate Eagle, the head of the United Bay Area Council as mentioned before. Hartmann was able to figure this out by working closely with Eagle for a long period of time, in helping with the translation of his book, Heart of the Rock, and by doing so learned his writing style. She noticed it was very similar to that of the Proclamation. Out of curiosity, she called him one day inquiring about her inference.
If he dies, I just need to know. So one day I called him and I asked him, ‘Adam, did you write that proclamation?’, and he said, ‘Yes I did.’ All these years he never admitted to it. He said, ‘I can show you all the corrections the Indian Community and I made. I have all the proof and xeroxes of the corrections.’ So he wrote it. He’s very funny and a little bit sarcastic. I think he probably wrote it, then took it to the Intertribal Friendship House and worked with them on it. He always said the Urban Indian community, but the big center was the Friendship House in Oakland so I’d imagine that is where he did most of the editing and work (Hartmann, 2016).
Here, Hartmann credits the Urban Indian Community in the Bay Area as the primary, invaluable contributor to the Alcatraz Occupation.
Conclusion
The Re-Emergence of Native American Identity
The outcome of the Alcatraz Occupation of 1969, was the sense of Native American pride. This was proven in the simple census statistics recording the number of Native American populations. However, Burt also accredits the multi-tribal and concentrated nature of the new urban Indian population, and the rise of Indian self-determination of the sixties and seventies. “In 1970, it was the first time the population of Native Americans in cities surpassed that in rural areas…” (Burt, 85). Hartmann agrees that the resurgence of Native American identity sprung from the Alcatraz Occupation.
Conclusion
The Re-Emergence of Native American Identity
The outcome of the Alcatraz Occupation of 1969, was the sense of Native American pride. This was proven in the simple census statistics recording the number of Native American populations. However, Burt also accredits the multi-tribal and concentrated nature of the new urban Indian population, and the rise of Indian self-determination of the sixties and seventies. “In 1970, it was the first time the population of Native Americans in cities surpassed that in rural areas…” (Burt, 85). Hartmann agrees that the resurgence of Native American identity sprung from the Alcatraz Occupation.
There were about 40,000 Indians before the 1970s in the Bay Area, but now there are about 100,000. It’s probably for many different reasons. One, until the Alcatraz occupation many Indians did not want to admit they were Indian. They would say they were Mexican or something else because there was so much prejudice. And now they are proud of it--if they have any Indian blood. Now there are more Indians in urban areas than there are in reservations (Hartmann, Ilka. Personal Interview. 5, December 2016).
Toward the end of the interview, Ilka Hartmann concludes that the re-emergence of Native American identity is in fact due to these past historical events.
All those things, like Alcatraz, helped to raise their self-respect, but also the world respected them more. It’s all about consciousness raising that is the most important. I’m so grateful to have seen that and been a part of that (Hartmann, 2016.)
The Relocation era of the 1950s misplaced thousands of Native Americans from reservations to urban areas. However, the government’s plan that Native Americans would assimilate mostly failed. Instead, according to William Burt, it “created pan-Indian social institutions developed in cities that would eventually serve as the foundation for political activism based on the Native American Identity” (95). The mass volume of Native Americans led to organizations such as the Intertribal Friendship House, which played a key role in the Occupation of Alcatraz and the reaffirmation of Native American pride.
Photos – from top to bottom:
- Ilka Hartman at the exhibit Cement Prairie featured at the New Museum in Los Gatos, California until June 25, 2017.
- Vintage Indian Clubs jackets on display about Indian Urbanization.
- Hartmann’s documentation of Life on a Reservation.
- Native American books at the Bolinas Community Library on December 5, 2016.
Ablon, Joan. “American Indian Relocation: Problems of Dependency and Management in the City. "Phylon. (1960-). Vol 26, no. 4. Clark Atlanta University. Pp 362-371.
Burt, Larry W. “Roots of the Native American Urban Experience: Relocation Policy in the 1950s.” American Indian Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 2. Spring 1986. University Nebraska Press. pp. 85-99.
"City." Phylon. (1960-). Vol 26, no. 4. Clark Atlanta University. Pp 362-371.
Gundlach, James H. and Roberts, Alden E. “Native American Indian Migration and Relocation: Success or Failure. “ The Pacific Sociological Review. vol . 21, no. 1. (Jan., 1978). University of California Press. pp 117-118.
Hartmann, Ilka. Personal Interview. 5, December 2016.
Johnson, Troy. “The Occupation of Alcatraz Island: Roots of American Indian Activism.” Wicazo Sa Review. Vol. 10, No. 2. (Autumn 1994) University of Minnesota Press. pp.63-79.
Lobo, Susan. “Urban Clan Mothers: Key Households in the City.” American Indian Quarterly, vol. 27. Special Issue : Urban American Indian Women’s Activism. (Summer-Autumn, 2003). University of Nebraska Press. pp 505-552.
Merriam Webster, Merriamwebster.com, n.p., n.d. Web. 11 Dec. 2016.
Prucha, Francis Paul. “The Termination Era”. The United States Government and American Indians. Chpt. 23.
Willard, William. “Outing Relocation, and Employment Assistance: the Impact of Federal Indian Population Dispersal Programs in the Bay Area. Wicazo Sa Review, vol.12, no. 1. (Spring1997). University of Minnesota. pp.29-46.
Alexa Almira
Asians in the Library
Asians in the Library
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Alexa Almira is a Cuban-American sophomore at SF State working toward a major in Ecology. Although she can often be found frolicking through fields collecting data for research on the long-term effects of climate change in the Bay Area, one can also find her working as a Program Director for Monday Night Marsh and Theater Technician for solo performances at The Marsh Theater in San Francisco. Alexa has spent a good portion of her life reading and writing fiction in both English and Spanish. She has been working on her two most recent novels One Way Ticket to Mars and Lovely, which she will eventually try to. While she finds the art of the biological sciences fascinating, writing is crucial to her existence.
PROMPT FROM LECTURER, BRIGITTE DAVILA:
Alexa was asked to watch watch Alexandra Wallace's infamous viral vlog about Asians in the Library at UCLA and analyze its effectiveness by looking at reactions and responses to the racist video.
Alexa Almira is a Cuban-American sophomore at SF State working toward a major in Ecology. Although she can often be found frolicking through fields collecting data for research on the long-term effects of climate change in the Bay Area, one can also find her working as a Program Director for Monday Night Marsh and Theater Technician for solo performances at The Marsh Theater in San Francisco. Alexa has spent a good portion of her life reading and writing fiction in both English and Spanish. She has been working on her two most recent novels One Way Ticket to Mars and Lovely, which she will eventually try to. While she finds the art of the biological sciences fascinating, writing is crucial to her existence.
PROMPT FROM LECTURER, BRIGITTE DAVILA:
Alexa was asked to watch watch Alexandra Wallace's infamous viral vlog about Asians in the Library at UCLA and analyze its effectiveness by looking at reactions and responses to the racist video.
In March of 2011, Alexandra Wallace’s YouTube video, “Asians in the Library,” instantaneously went viral as she strung together a list of racist remarks directed at Asians students attending UCLA. As a result, a wave of responses to Wallace’s vlog--from comedies to parodies to musicals--began to surface. Out of all the responses to the video, Spoken Word Artist Beau Sia’s poem, “Asians in the Library of the World: A Persona Poem in the Voice of Alexandra Wallace,” was the most successful in reaching his intended audience, the Millennial generation in America, those born between 1982 and 2004. Sia’s poem successfully uses logos, ethos, and pathos to craft a response that encourages conversation about stereotypes and racial prejudices, such as the ones originating from Alexandra Wallace’s video.
Sia’s poem effectively uses logos to show his ability to look deeper into the meaning behind Wallace’s racist words. Unlike the majority of the responses to Wallace’s vlog, Sia did not choose to attack her through the creation of a poem depicting personal hurt or anger. Instead, he chose to argue her point, hoping to offer a more meaningful perspective on possible reasons behind her mind-set on Asians. Logos plays a huge part in the creation of this poem because of the way he tries to depict Wallace. He writes, “There are hordes of Asians at my school and it’s starting to freak me out. They act in a manner I wasn’t taught growing up, and I don’t want to question who I am and how I was raised” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). This verse of the poem shows honest insight as to why Wallace may have been thinking of Asians as foreigners with no American mannerisms (Original “Asians in the Library,” Wallace). Sia suggests that the Asians to whom she refers follow values from a culture that is alien to her. Being surrounded by the unfamiliar in an environment with which she thought she was supposed to feel comfortable overwhelms her in the end. He demonstrates how potential fear of the “other” can encourage her to respond in such a racist manner
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog use unnecessary stereotypes to make arguments against her. For example, in Jimmy Wong’s song “Ching Chong,” he comments on her “pounds of make-up” and “baby blue eyes” in an attempt to personally attack Wallace the way he felt personally attacked by her (“Ching Chong” song, Wong). Sia, on the other hand, uses control to look past these first immediate feelings of anger and hate toward a person who showed obvious disrespect to an entire community. He recognizes that Wallace’s physical appearance had nothing to do with the words that she expressed. He looks past the ways of fueling the fire and instead uses her remarks as a way of presenting the possible fears that may have triggered her negative thinking toward Asians. He knows that there are others that share the same sentiments as Alexandra Wallaces out in the world. Therefore, he takes Wallace’s racist rant as an opportunity to facilitate a conversation about stereotypes and the way we as Americans have been programmed to perceive certain groups of people in the world.
Beau Sia’s credibility and use of ethos is also successful in reaching his audience due to the the honest way in which he elects to portray Alexandra Wallace’s character. At the beginning of the response, Sia informs his audience that the poem is read in the voice of Wallace. Not only does using first-person point of view emphasize the intensity of the poem, but it also gives her character another chance to voice the actual fear and discomfort hidden within her racist words. As he writes, “I’m letting their existence jeopardize my idea of the world and I don’t like it” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia), he reminds the audience that Wallace is not a monster; she is still a human-being that does not “like” the way certain groups of people are “jeopardizing” the comfort of the world she thought she knew. He is suggesting that despite such programmed negative thinking about Asians, she should still have the right to be understood. As a self-identified member of the Asian community, Sia’s opinions about Wallace’s video are valued and respected. He uses that privilege to his advantage in order to keep his audience’s attention, which could be why he takes a risk and argues sympathy and understanding for Wallace instead of ridicule and hate. At the end of his piece, he even bluntly states that we should “learn from each other” instead of choosing to fight fire with fire (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia).
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog do not show the same credibility that Sia shows. In Snowy Black’s parody of the original, Black, like Sia, also chooses to respond in the perspective of Alexandra Wallace’s character. She fails to successfully encourage conversation about the possible reasoning behind Wallace’s thinking. Black takes the impersonation to the extreme by stuffing her bra to make her boobs look as big as Wallace’s, wearing a blonde wig and heavy make-up, and exaggerating her voice so that it sounds like the stereotypical California valley girl. This is an act of mockery. Black’s video is an ad-hominem attack at Wallace (“Thank YOU for the Love on my Asians in the Library Video” video, Black). In order to achieve that, she uses irrelevant stereotypes to portray a dirty, sexual image of Wallace, claiming she “provides services” for all the old Asian men that come to the apartments around her (“Asians in the Library” parody, Black). Sia does not use race, class, gender, or tone of voice as excuses or reasons behind Wallace’s ignorant words, which is made apparent through his decision not to wear a wig or over-exaggerate his voice. Black’s response, in turn, is not nearly as effective as Sia’s because there was no constructive or instructive message conveyed.
In addition to logic and credibility, Sia’s poem successfully triggers an emotional response from his audience through distinct word choice. As mentioned earlier, Sia writes in the first person point of view in the voice of Alexandra Wallace which invokes pathos. His decision to bring I-statements into the poem further emphasized that it was through her perspective and brought out a possibly more vulnerable side to her. He often uses phrases that hold very personal feelings such as “It’s so hard to maintain fitting in” and “If only they understood that I’m here, too, and that I share this place with them, that I belong” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). In the original blog, Wallace comes off as very crude and confident with her opinions. Sia, however, brings out a more humanized portrayal of her that acts In March of 2011, Alexandra Wallace’s YouTube video, “Asians in the Library,” instantaneously went viral as she strung together a list of racist remarks directed at Asian students attending UCLA. As a result, a wave of responses to Wallace’s vlog—from comedies to parodies to musicals—began to surface. Out of all the responses to the video, Spoken Word Artist Beau Sia’s poem, “Asians in the Library of the World: A Persona Poem in the Voice of Alexandra Wallace,” was the most successful in reaching its intended audience: the Millennial generation in America. This group is loosely comprised of those born between 1982 and 2004. Sia’s poem successfully uses logos, ethos, and pathos to craft a response that encourages conversation about stereotypes and racial prejudices, such as the ones originating from Alexandra Wallace’s video.
Sia’s poem effectively uses logos to show his ability to look deeper into the meaning behind Wallace’s racist words. Unlike the majority of the responses to Wallace’s vlog, Sia did not choose to attack her by creating a poem depicting personal hurt or anger. Instead, he chose to argue her point, hoping to offer a more meaningful perspective on possible reasons behind her mind-set on Asians. Logos plays a huge part in the origination of this poem because of the way he tries to depict Wallace. He writes, “There are hordes of Asians at my school and it’s starting to freak me out. They act in a manner I wasn’t taught growing up, and I don’t want to question who I am and how I was raised” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). This verse of the poem shows honest insight as to why Wallace may have been thinking of Asians as foreigners with no American mannerisms (Original “Asians in the Library,” Wallace). Sia suggests that the Asians to whom she refers follow values from a culture that is alien to her. Being surrounded by the unfamiliar in an environment with which she thought she was supposed to feel comfortable overwhelms her in the end. He demonstrates how potential fear of the “other” can encourage her to respond in such a racist manner
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog use unnecessary stereotypes to make arguments against her. For example, in Jimmy Wong’s song “Ching Chong,” he comments on her “pounds of make-up” and “baby blue eyes” in an attempt to personally attack Wallace the way he felt personally attacked by her (“Ching Chong” song, Wong). Sia, on the other hand, uses control to look past these immediate feelings of anger and hate toward a person who showed obvious disrespect to an entire community. He recognizes that Wallace’s physical appearance had nothing to do with the words she expressed. He looks past the ways of fueling the fire and instead uses her remarks as a way of presenting the possible fears that may have triggered her negative thinking. He knows that there are others that share the same sentiments as Alexandra Wallace. Therefore, he takes Wallace’s racist rant as an opportunity to facilitate a conversation about stereotypes and the way we as Americans have been programmed to perceive certain groups of people in the world.
Beau Sia’s credibility and use of ethos is also successful in reaching his audience due to the honest way in which he elects to portray Alexandra Wallace’s character. At the beginning of the response, Sia informs his audience that the poem is read in the voice of Wallace. Not only does using first-person point of view emphasize the intensity of the poem, but it also gives her character another chance to voice the actual fear and discomfort hidden within her racist words. As he writes, “I’m letting their existence jeopardize my idea of the world and I don’t like it” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia), he reminds the audience that Wallace is not a monster; she is still a human-being who does not “like” the way certain groups of people are “jeopardizing” the comfort of the world she thought she knew. He is suggesting that despite such programmed negative thinking about Asians, she should still have the right to be understood. As a self-identified member of the Asian community, Sia’s opinions about Wallace’s video are valued and respected. He uses that privilege to his advantage in order to keep his audience’s attention, which could be why he takes a risk and argues sympathy and understanding for Wallace instead of ridicule and hate. At the end of his piece, he bluntly states that we should “learn from each other” instead of choosing to fight fire with fire (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia).
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog do not show the same credibility that Sia shows. In Snowy Black’s parody of the original, Black, like Sia, chooses to respond in the perspective of Alexandra Wallace’s character. She fails to successfully encourage conversation about the possible reasoning behind Wallace’s thinking. Black takes the impersonation to the extreme by stuffing her bra to make her boobs look as big as Wallace’s, wearing a blonde wig and heavy make-up, and exaggerating her voice so that it sounds like the stereotypical California valley girl. This is an act of mockery. Black’s video is an ad-hominem attack at Wallace (“Thank YOU for the Love on my Asians in the Library Video” video, Black). In order to achieve that, she uses irrelevant stereotypes to portray a dirty, sexual image of Wallace, claiming she “provides services” for all the old Asian men that come to the apartments around her (“Asians in the Library” parody, Black). Sia does not use race, class, gender, or tone of voice as excuses or reasons behind Wallace’s ignorant words, which is made apparent through his decision not to wear a wig or over-exaggerate his voice. Black’s response, in turn, is not nearly as effective as Sia’s because there was no constructive or instructive message conveyed.
In addition to logic and credibility, Sia’s poem successfully triggers an emotional response from his audience through distinct word choice. As mentioned earlier, Sia writes in the first person point of view in the voice of Alexandra Wallace, which invokes pathos. His decision to bring I-statements into the poem further emphasizes that it is through her perspective and brings out a vulnerable side of her. He often uses phrases that hold personal feelings such as “It’s so hard to maintain fitting in” and “If only they understood that I’m here, too, and that I share this place with them, that I belong” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). In the original vlog, Wallace comes off as very crude and confident with her opinions. Sia, however, brings out a more humanized portrayal of her that acts as an underlying nuance between the lines of his response. He ends the poem with, “I’m so afraid I’ll have to fend for myself without, what I’ve been told, was mine” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). Sia chooses to portray this side of her in order to get his audience to sympathize with Wallace. While most other videos, like Danny So’s comedic response, aim to simply fight and defend themselves or their culture, Sia aims to engender understanding. A depiction of vulnerability and honesty often times leads others to let their guard down. Sia wants the audience to feel for Wallace and let go of their defense mechanisms. By releasing such defense mechanisms, we as a society can come together and try to understand each other.
Beau Sia’s poem, “Asians in the Library of the World: A Persona Poem in the Voice of Alexandra Wallace,” conveys his message to his intended audience effectively. Millennials made most of the unproductive response videos, so Sia used logos, ethos, and pathos to help craft a poem that would ultimately encourage this group to have a conversation about the roots of stereotypes and racial inequality. He offers a distinct perspective on the matter, different than most other replies on YouTube, so that the audience can understand why a person like Alexandra Wallace acts and thinks the way she does. Sia’s proactive response encourages compassion and understanding as a way to start conversations and take action toward diffusing stereotypes.
Works Cited:
Black, Snowy. “Asians in the Library – (UCLA Student Alexandra Wallace) Parody.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8e11viF6JbM
Black, Snowy. “Thank YOU for the Love on my Asians in the Library Video.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QH2rf5hb1dg
Sia’s poem effectively uses logos to show his ability to look deeper into the meaning behind Wallace’s racist words. Unlike the majority of the responses to Wallace’s vlog, Sia did not choose to attack her through the creation of a poem depicting personal hurt or anger. Instead, he chose to argue her point, hoping to offer a more meaningful perspective on possible reasons behind her mind-set on Asians. Logos plays a huge part in the creation of this poem because of the way he tries to depict Wallace. He writes, “There are hordes of Asians at my school and it’s starting to freak me out. They act in a manner I wasn’t taught growing up, and I don’t want to question who I am and how I was raised” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). This verse of the poem shows honest insight as to why Wallace may have been thinking of Asians as foreigners with no American mannerisms (Original “Asians in the Library,” Wallace). Sia suggests that the Asians to whom she refers follow values from a culture that is alien to her. Being surrounded by the unfamiliar in an environment with which she thought she was supposed to feel comfortable overwhelms her in the end. He demonstrates how potential fear of the “other” can encourage her to respond in such a racist manner
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog use unnecessary stereotypes to make arguments against her. For example, in Jimmy Wong’s song “Ching Chong,” he comments on her “pounds of make-up” and “baby blue eyes” in an attempt to personally attack Wallace the way he felt personally attacked by her (“Ching Chong” song, Wong). Sia, on the other hand, uses control to look past these first immediate feelings of anger and hate toward a person who showed obvious disrespect to an entire community. He recognizes that Wallace’s physical appearance had nothing to do with the words that she expressed. He looks past the ways of fueling the fire and instead uses her remarks as a way of presenting the possible fears that may have triggered her negative thinking toward Asians. He knows that there are others that share the same sentiments as Alexandra Wallaces out in the world. Therefore, he takes Wallace’s racist rant as an opportunity to facilitate a conversation about stereotypes and the way we as Americans have been programmed to perceive certain groups of people in the world.
Beau Sia’s credibility and use of ethos is also successful in reaching his audience due to the the honest way in which he elects to portray Alexandra Wallace’s character. At the beginning of the response, Sia informs his audience that the poem is read in the voice of Wallace. Not only does using first-person point of view emphasize the intensity of the poem, but it also gives her character another chance to voice the actual fear and discomfort hidden within her racist words. As he writes, “I’m letting their existence jeopardize my idea of the world and I don’t like it” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia), he reminds the audience that Wallace is not a monster; she is still a human-being that does not “like” the way certain groups of people are “jeopardizing” the comfort of the world she thought she knew. He is suggesting that despite such programmed negative thinking about Asians, she should still have the right to be understood. As a self-identified member of the Asian community, Sia’s opinions about Wallace’s video are valued and respected. He uses that privilege to his advantage in order to keep his audience’s attention, which could be why he takes a risk and argues sympathy and understanding for Wallace instead of ridicule and hate. At the end of his piece, he even bluntly states that we should “learn from each other” instead of choosing to fight fire with fire (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia).
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog do not show the same credibility that Sia shows. In Snowy Black’s parody of the original, Black, like Sia, also chooses to respond in the perspective of Alexandra Wallace’s character. She fails to successfully encourage conversation about the possible reasoning behind Wallace’s thinking. Black takes the impersonation to the extreme by stuffing her bra to make her boobs look as big as Wallace’s, wearing a blonde wig and heavy make-up, and exaggerating her voice so that it sounds like the stereotypical California valley girl. This is an act of mockery. Black’s video is an ad-hominem attack at Wallace (“Thank YOU for the Love on my Asians in the Library Video” video, Black). In order to achieve that, she uses irrelevant stereotypes to portray a dirty, sexual image of Wallace, claiming she “provides services” for all the old Asian men that come to the apartments around her (“Asians in the Library” parody, Black). Sia does not use race, class, gender, or tone of voice as excuses or reasons behind Wallace’s ignorant words, which is made apparent through his decision not to wear a wig or over-exaggerate his voice. Black’s response, in turn, is not nearly as effective as Sia’s because there was no constructive or instructive message conveyed.
In addition to logic and credibility, Sia’s poem successfully triggers an emotional response from his audience through distinct word choice. As mentioned earlier, Sia writes in the first person point of view in the voice of Alexandra Wallace which invokes pathos. His decision to bring I-statements into the poem further emphasized that it was through her perspective and brought out a possibly more vulnerable side to her. He often uses phrases that hold very personal feelings such as “It’s so hard to maintain fitting in” and “If only they understood that I’m here, too, and that I share this place with them, that I belong” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). In the original blog, Wallace comes off as very crude and confident with her opinions. Sia, however, brings out a more humanized portrayal of her that acts In March of 2011, Alexandra Wallace’s YouTube video, “Asians in the Library,” instantaneously went viral as she strung together a list of racist remarks directed at Asian students attending UCLA. As a result, a wave of responses to Wallace’s vlog—from comedies to parodies to musicals—began to surface. Out of all the responses to the video, Spoken Word Artist Beau Sia’s poem, “Asians in the Library of the World: A Persona Poem in the Voice of Alexandra Wallace,” was the most successful in reaching its intended audience: the Millennial generation in America. This group is loosely comprised of those born between 1982 and 2004. Sia’s poem successfully uses logos, ethos, and pathos to craft a response that encourages conversation about stereotypes and racial prejudices, such as the ones originating from Alexandra Wallace’s video.
Sia’s poem effectively uses logos to show his ability to look deeper into the meaning behind Wallace’s racist words. Unlike the majority of the responses to Wallace’s vlog, Sia did not choose to attack her by creating a poem depicting personal hurt or anger. Instead, he chose to argue her point, hoping to offer a more meaningful perspective on possible reasons behind her mind-set on Asians. Logos plays a huge part in the origination of this poem because of the way he tries to depict Wallace. He writes, “There are hordes of Asians at my school and it’s starting to freak me out. They act in a manner I wasn’t taught growing up, and I don’t want to question who I am and how I was raised” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). This verse of the poem shows honest insight as to why Wallace may have been thinking of Asians as foreigners with no American mannerisms (Original “Asians in the Library,” Wallace). Sia suggests that the Asians to whom she refers follow values from a culture that is alien to her. Being surrounded by the unfamiliar in an environment with which she thought she was supposed to feel comfortable overwhelms her in the end. He demonstrates how potential fear of the “other” can encourage her to respond in such a racist manner
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog use unnecessary stereotypes to make arguments against her. For example, in Jimmy Wong’s song “Ching Chong,” he comments on her “pounds of make-up” and “baby blue eyes” in an attempt to personally attack Wallace the way he felt personally attacked by her (“Ching Chong” song, Wong). Sia, on the other hand, uses control to look past these immediate feelings of anger and hate toward a person who showed obvious disrespect to an entire community. He recognizes that Wallace’s physical appearance had nothing to do with the words she expressed. He looks past the ways of fueling the fire and instead uses her remarks as a way of presenting the possible fears that may have triggered her negative thinking. He knows that there are others that share the same sentiments as Alexandra Wallace. Therefore, he takes Wallace’s racist rant as an opportunity to facilitate a conversation about stereotypes and the way we as Americans have been programmed to perceive certain groups of people in the world.
Beau Sia’s credibility and use of ethos is also successful in reaching his audience due to the honest way in which he elects to portray Alexandra Wallace’s character. At the beginning of the response, Sia informs his audience that the poem is read in the voice of Wallace. Not only does using first-person point of view emphasize the intensity of the poem, but it also gives her character another chance to voice the actual fear and discomfort hidden within her racist words. As he writes, “I’m letting their existence jeopardize my idea of the world and I don’t like it” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia), he reminds the audience that Wallace is not a monster; she is still a human-being who does not “like” the way certain groups of people are “jeopardizing” the comfort of the world she thought she knew. He is suggesting that despite such programmed negative thinking about Asians, she should still have the right to be understood. As a self-identified member of the Asian community, Sia’s opinions about Wallace’s video are valued and respected. He uses that privilege to his advantage in order to keep his audience’s attention, which could be why he takes a risk and argues sympathy and understanding for Wallace instead of ridicule and hate. At the end of his piece, he bluntly states that we should “learn from each other” instead of choosing to fight fire with fire (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia).
Other responses to Wallace’s vlog do not show the same credibility that Sia shows. In Snowy Black’s parody of the original, Black, like Sia, chooses to respond in the perspective of Alexandra Wallace’s character. She fails to successfully encourage conversation about the possible reasoning behind Wallace’s thinking. Black takes the impersonation to the extreme by stuffing her bra to make her boobs look as big as Wallace’s, wearing a blonde wig and heavy make-up, and exaggerating her voice so that it sounds like the stereotypical California valley girl. This is an act of mockery. Black’s video is an ad-hominem attack at Wallace (“Thank YOU for the Love on my Asians in the Library Video” video, Black). In order to achieve that, she uses irrelevant stereotypes to portray a dirty, sexual image of Wallace, claiming she “provides services” for all the old Asian men that come to the apartments around her (“Asians in the Library” parody, Black). Sia does not use race, class, gender, or tone of voice as excuses or reasons behind Wallace’s ignorant words, which is made apparent through his decision not to wear a wig or over-exaggerate his voice. Black’s response, in turn, is not nearly as effective as Sia’s because there was no constructive or instructive message conveyed.
In addition to logic and credibility, Sia’s poem successfully triggers an emotional response from his audience through distinct word choice. As mentioned earlier, Sia writes in the first person point of view in the voice of Alexandra Wallace, which invokes pathos. His decision to bring I-statements into the poem further emphasizes that it is through her perspective and brings out a vulnerable side of her. He often uses phrases that hold personal feelings such as “It’s so hard to maintain fitting in” and “If only they understood that I’m here, too, and that I share this place with them, that I belong” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). In the original vlog, Wallace comes off as very crude and confident with her opinions. Sia, however, brings out a more humanized portrayal of her that acts as an underlying nuance between the lines of his response. He ends the poem with, “I’m so afraid I’ll have to fend for myself without, what I’ve been told, was mine” (“Asians in the Library of the World” poem, Sia). Sia chooses to portray this side of her in order to get his audience to sympathize with Wallace. While most other videos, like Danny So’s comedic response, aim to simply fight and defend themselves or their culture, Sia aims to engender understanding. A depiction of vulnerability and honesty often times leads others to let their guard down. Sia wants the audience to feel for Wallace and let go of their defense mechanisms. By releasing such defense mechanisms, we as a society can come together and try to understand each other.
Beau Sia’s poem, “Asians in the Library of the World: A Persona Poem in the Voice of Alexandra Wallace,” conveys his message to his intended audience effectively. Millennials made most of the unproductive response videos, so Sia used logos, ethos, and pathos to help craft a poem that would ultimately encourage this group to have a conversation about the roots of stereotypes and racial inequality. He offers a distinct perspective on the matter, different than most other replies on YouTube, so that the audience can understand why a person like Alexandra Wallace acts and thinks the way she does. Sia’s proactive response encourages compassion and understanding as a way to start conversations and take action toward diffusing stereotypes.
Works Cited:
Black, Snowy. “Asians in the Library – (UCLA Student Alexandra Wallace) Parody.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8e11viF6JbM
Black, Snowy. “Thank YOU for the Love on my Asians in the Library Video.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QH2rf5hb1dg
Christina Colombo
The Last of the Yahi
The Last of the Yahi
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Christina is a second-year, first generation student from Benicia, CA., currently studying Child and Adolescent Development at SF State. She advocates for social justice and believes in equity for all people in their education. Besides CAD, she is interested in studying Business with a concentration in Management; her major is still undecided. English has been Christina’s favorite subject since she was nine, and writing is her way of escaping from reality. In her spare time, she enjoys being outside, creating art, traveling and spending time with her family and pets. She has two cats, one dog and a turtle. She loves animals and to make other people smile. College is a dream come true for her, and she is excited to share her writing with anyone who will read it. Her life is not about the destination but the journey she is taking.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, LINDA SWANSON:
Christina’s essay is in response to “The Book Club” assignment (English 214) wherein students form book clubs with selections of their choosing, then write essays with research focusing on a topic from those self-selected books. The assignment asks students to present a comprehensive overview of the book and conclude with their own thoughts, insights, and opinions. A notable strength in Christina’s writing is her ability to captivate the reader with her organized, informative, and concise narrative style, seen here in her essay about Ishi – “The Last of the Yahi.”
Christina is a second-year, first generation student from Benicia, CA., currently studying Child and Adolescent Development at SF State. She advocates for social justice and believes in equity for all people in their education. Besides CAD, she is interested in studying Business with a concentration in Management; her major is still undecided. English has been Christina’s favorite subject since she was nine, and writing is her way of escaping from reality. In her spare time, she enjoys being outside, creating art, traveling and spending time with her family and pets. She has two cats, one dog and a turtle. She loves animals and to make other people smile. College is a dream come true for her, and she is excited to share her writing with anyone who will read it. Her life is not about the destination but the journey she is taking.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, LINDA SWANSON:
Christina’s essay is in response to “The Book Club” assignment (English 214) wherein students form book clubs with selections of their choosing, then write essays with research focusing on a topic from those self-selected books. The assignment asks students to present a comprehensive overview of the book and conclude with their own thoughts, insights, and opinions. A notable strength in Christina’s writing is her ability to captivate the reader with her organized, informative, and concise narrative style, seen here in her essay about Ishi – “The Last of the Yahi.”
In the book, Ishi In Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian in North America, writer and anthropologist, Theodora Kroeber, tells the incredible life story of the Native American Indian named Ishi. Ishi was a member of the Yahi tribe, the last tribe in Northern California, who was later taken in by the white man to live in civilization. In 1911, Ishi was found by butchers in the corral of a slaughterhouse in Oroville, CA. Ishi did not speak English and was therefore unable to communicate with them. The butchers soon called the town sheriff J.B. Webber who took Ishi to the local jail to sit in a cell until they could figure out where this man had come from. During this time, the story of capturing a wild Indian, unheard of in the 20th century, was all over the newspapers; and Professor Thomas Waterman and Professor Alfred Kroeber, anthropologists from the University of California, became interested in Ishi. Waterman took Ishi from the jail and brought him to San Francisco, where the University’s Museum of Anthropology was located. Ishi lived at the Museum of Anthropology for four years and seven months as a living exhibit, teaching his native culture to visitors, until he was taken to the UC hospital where he passed away of Advanced Pulmonary Tuberculosis.
Theodora Kroeber had studied Clinical Psychology at UC Berkeley before returning to study Anthropology. There, she met her husband Alfred Kroeber. Alfred Kroeber was a professor at the university, a leading American Anthropologist, and one of the main professors that studied and spent time with Ishi during his time living in captivity. Although Theodora Kroeber never met Ishi, her husband confided in her about his studies and friendship, inspiring her to write Ishi In Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian in North America. She says,
Theodora Kroeber had studied Clinical Psychology at UC Berkeley before returning to study Anthropology. There, she met her husband Alfred Kroeber. Alfred Kroeber was a professor at the university, a leading American Anthropologist, and one of the main professors that studied and spent time with Ishi during his time living in captivity. Although Theodora Kroeber never met Ishi, her husband confided in her about his studies and friendship, inspiring her to write Ishi In Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian in North America. She says,
This history of Ishi and his people is, inexorably part of our own history. We have absorbed their lands into our holdings. Just so we must be the responsible custodians of their tragedy absorbing in into our tradition and morality (Kroeber, 1960).
Ishi’s history is our history. We need to carry on the veritable stories of the extermination of the California Native American Indians or else it will be forgotten and can repeat itself again in the future.
Ishi’s story begins with his life in the Yahi tribe. The Yahi are a subgroup of the Yana tribe, which consists of four subgroups called the Northern, Central, Southern and Yahi. The Yana belongs to the Hokan superfamily, which is one of the six super-families of North America, “each with its own geographic boundaries, its own dialect and its own set of specializations and peculiarities” (T. Kroeber 16). It is traditional for there to be cultural fragmentation such as this, and in each tribe it was common for a different language to be spoken even if they shared the same superfamily. Beginning in 1844, there was an increase in Spanish and Anglo-American immigration to California; t he immigrants were in search of land, gold, and a new life. The increase of immigration caused tension between the wild Indians and the domesticated settlers. An extermination of the Indian population began and did not end until the presence of the tribe and its decedents had seemingly been annihilated, slaughtered by violent attacks, along with diseases and forced migrations imposed by white settlers. The Yahi tribe was quickly decimated from thousands of members, to a few people, and then to just Ishi as the lone survivor of his tribe.
Ishi’s tribe was not the only tribe dismantled and annihilated. The whites went after all wild Indians, regardless of tribal affiliation was. During the gold rush, land that belonged to the Indians was ripped away from them to create new communities for the settlers. As a result, they lost many resources such as rivers, lush hunting grounds, and plants they relied on for food, leaving them to starve. According to the article, “The Incorporation of the Native American Past: Cultural Extermination, Archaeological Protection, and the Antiquities Act of 1906” from the International Journal of Cultural Property by Chip Colwell-chanthaphonh,
Over the course of four centuries, between 1492 and 1892, it is believed that the population of native peoples in the Americas collapsed by as much as 90%. By the time manifest destiny had fully manifested at the end of the nineteenth century, only about 250,000 American Indians survived in the United States, confined by the government in many cases to small, unhealthy enclaves at the fringes of American society (Colwell-chanthaphonh, 2005).
It is hard to imagine the exact number of innocent people who were executed so others could take their land and live free from fear of those they deemed primitive. To compensate for those injustices, measures were later taken to help protect what was left of Native American Indians - their culture, land, and future, including The Antiquities Act of 1906, which was supposed to protect the land of Indians. The Antiquities Act is described as,
Ishi’s story begins with his life in the Yahi tribe. The Yahi are a subgroup of the Yana tribe, which consists of four subgroups called the Northern, Central, Southern and Yahi. The Yana belongs to the Hokan superfamily, which is one of the six super-families of North America, “each with its own geographic boundaries, its own dialect and its own set of specializations and peculiarities” (T. Kroeber 16). It is traditional for there to be cultural fragmentation such as this, and in each tribe it was common for a different language to be spoken even if they shared the same superfamily. Beginning in 1844, there was an increase in Spanish and Anglo-American immigration to California; t he immigrants were in search of land, gold, and a new life. The increase of immigration caused tension between the wild Indians and the domesticated settlers. An extermination of the Indian population began and did not end until the presence of the tribe and its decedents had seemingly been annihilated, slaughtered by violent attacks, along with diseases and forced migrations imposed by white settlers. The Yahi tribe was quickly decimated from thousands of members, to a few people, and then to just Ishi as the lone survivor of his tribe.
Ishi’s tribe was not the only tribe dismantled and annihilated. The whites went after all wild Indians, regardless of tribal affiliation was. During the gold rush, land that belonged to the Indians was ripped away from them to create new communities for the settlers. As a result, they lost many resources such as rivers, lush hunting grounds, and plants they relied on for food, leaving them to starve. According to the article, “The Incorporation of the Native American Past: Cultural Extermination, Archaeological Protection, and the Antiquities Act of 1906” from the International Journal of Cultural Property by Chip Colwell-chanthaphonh,
Over the course of four centuries, between 1492 and 1892, it is believed that the population of native peoples in the Americas collapsed by as much as 90%. By the time manifest destiny had fully manifested at the end of the nineteenth century, only about 250,000 American Indians survived in the United States, confined by the government in many cases to small, unhealthy enclaves at the fringes of American society (Colwell-chanthaphonh, 2005).
It is hard to imagine the exact number of innocent people who were executed so others could take their land and live free from fear of those they deemed primitive. To compensate for those injustices, measures were later taken to help protect what was left of Native American Indians - their culture, land, and future, including The Antiquities Act of 1906, which was supposed to protect the land of Indians. The Antiquities Act is described as,
[T]he first law to establish that archeological sites on public lands are important public resources. It obligates federal agencies that manage the public lands to preserve for present and future generations the historic, scientific, commemorative, and cultural values of the archaeological and historic sites and structures on these lands. It also authorizes the President to protect landmarks, structures, and objects of historic or scientific interest by designating them as National Monument (National Parks, 2006).
When this Act was implemented, it provided hope that Native American families could preserve their history, culture, and what is left of their land. However, this act of instating “Indian Reservations” was belated and ineffectual in preventing the murders, rape, wars, and land appropriation that continued. The American Government made a mediocre attempt to preserve what was left of Native American culture, absent of real protections.
Learning about the history of Ishi’s family, how he used to live in the wild, and how he learned to adapt to the modern environment was an eye-opening experience. Hearing about the different routines each season brought his tribe made me thankful for modern day conveniences, such as running water, grocery stores, and medicine. The description of tribal food preparation and shelter construction led me to admire their hard work, strategy, and intellect. The second part of the book conveyed how Ishi lived in the Museum without the comfort of his family members or a natural environment. Although he adapted and became close with Waterman and Kroeber, I feel that relationship could not compare to what he had with his tribe or being free in nature. It was disheartening to realize that he passed away only four years after being taken to the museum, contracting tuberculosis from white men, his untimely death the final injustice he suffered. Theodora and Alfred Kroeber dedicated their work to studying Ishi, inscribing his story and therefore giving him a voice. Because of their commitment, modern readers can experience Ishi’s plight and the horrible crimes perpetrated by the US government against the Yahi and other Native American tribes.
Works Cited:
Archeology Program. (2016, March 15). Retrieved December 4, 2016. https://www.nps.gov/archeology/sites/antiquities/about.htm.
Colwell-chanthaphonh, C. (2005). The incorporation of the native american past: Cultural extermination, archaeological protection, and the antiquities act of 1906. International Journal of Cultural Property, 12(3), 375-391. http://search.proquest.com/docview/232086247?accountid=13802
"extermination, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, September 2016. Web. 4 December 2016.
Kroeber, T. (1961). Ishi In Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian In North America. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: The Regents of the University of California.
Learning about the history of Ishi’s family, how he used to live in the wild, and how he learned to adapt to the modern environment was an eye-opening experience. Hearing about the different routines each season brought his tribe made me thankful for modern day conveniences, such as running water, grocery stores, and medicine. The description of tribal food preparation and shelter construction led me to admire their hard work, strategy, and intellect. The second part of the book conveyed how Ishi lived in the Museum without the comfort of his family members or a natural environment. Although he adapted and became close with Waterman and Kroeber, I feel that relationship could not compare to what he had with his tribe or being free in nature. It was disheartening to realize that he passed away only four years after being taken to the museum, contracting tuberculosis from white men, his untimely death the final injustice he suffered. Theodora and Alfred Kroeber dedicated their work to studying Ishi, inscribing his story and therefore giving him a voice. Because of their commitment, modern readers can experience Ishi’s plight and the horrible crimes perpetrated by the US government against the Yahi and other Native American tribes.
Works Cited:
Archeology Program. (2016, March 15). Retrieved December 4, 2016. https://www.nps.gov/archeology/sites/antiquities/about.htm.
Colwell-chanthaphonh, C. (2005). The incorporation of the native american past: Cultural extermination, archaeological protection, and the antiquities act of 1906. International Journal of Cultural Property, 12(3), 375-391. http://search.proquest.com/docview/232086247?accountid=13802
"extermination, n." OED Online. Oxford University Press, September 2016. Web. 4 December 2016.
Kroeber, T. (1961). Ishi In Two Worlds: A Biography of the Last Wild Indian In North America. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: The Regents of the University of California.
Andrew John Harrington
Climate Change: From Theory to Reality
Climate Change: From Theory to Reality
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Andrew is a second year student at SF State hailing all the way from Maine. He is working towards degree in Creative Writing, and hopes to write music, poems and film scripts. Environmental activism is a part of his weekly routine as he is working with Fossil Free SF State to try and make the world a greener place one campus at a time. He very involved with SF State’s Improv Nation and has dabbled with stand-up comedy. He plays, writes and listens to music religiously, and plays videos games compulsively. He also has a video essay series online covering topics from video games to movies and music.
PROMPT FROM LECTURER KAREN VILLANUEVA:
Choose an issue where there is a clear division of opinion and which is arguable with facts and inductive reasoning. You may choose an issue on which you have already formed an opinion. However, in writing about this issue you must examine your opinion of the issue critically. Prior to writing your Argument Paper, define and limit your issue carefully. Social issues are complex with multiple solutions. Narrow the topic of your position paper to something that is manageable. Research your issue thoroughly, consulting experts and obtaining primary documents. Consider feasibility, cost effectiveness and political/social climate when evaluating possible solutions and courses of action.
Andrew is a second year student at SF State hailing all the way from Maine. He is working towards degree in Creative Writing, and hopes to write music, poems and film scripts. Environmental activism is a part of his weekly routine as he is working with Fossil Free SF State to try and make the world a greener place one campus at a time. He very involved with SF State’s Improv Nation and has dabbled with stand-up comedy. He plays, writes and listens to music religiously, and plays videos games compulsively. He also has a video essay series online covering topics from video games to movies and music.
PROMPT FROM LECTURER KAREN VILLANUEVA:
Choose an issue where there is a clear division of opinion and which is arguable with facts and inductive reasoning. You may choose an issue on which you have already formed an opinion. However, in writing about this issue you must examine your opinion of the issue critically. Prior to writing your Argument Paper, define and limit your issue carefully. Social issues are complex with multiple solutions. Narrow the topic of your position paper to something that is manageable. Research your issue thoroughly, consulting experts and obtaining primary documents. Consider feasibility, cost effectiveness and political/social climate when evaluating possible solutions and courses of action.
If you have ever seen Jeff Orlowski's Chasing Ice, you understand the environmental danger we are facing now. The film follows James Balog around the world as he photographs glaciers over extended periods of time. Very quickly into the film we are able to observe the glaciers receding and breaking away, painting a horrifying picture of the current state of the world. One of the most shocking parts in the film depicts one of the world's largest glaciers breaking away, or calving, due to the flowing of warm water beneath it. The massive section that breaks off has a larger area than the landmass of Manhattan, but is at least two to three times taller. It is simultaneously one of the most terrifying, and yet beautifully awe-inspiring scenes ever witnessed. We have this momentous image caught on film to drive home the scale of the problem, and to inspire us to mobilize and tackle this issue head on (Orlowski). Yet, even with all of this evidence, there are still many people who still do not believe in climate change.
Climate change is an issue that has been noted by scientists for over 200 years, yet only entered the political arena in the 1950's. This raises the question why such a threatening issue can be shrugged off so easily by politicians and the public, alike. This is due to three major factors: the problem is huge and determining a solution is daunting; many are overwhelmed and fearful of the potential negative impact of; powerful corporations in the energy and automotive industries have financed a systematic campaign to minimize the issue. In this paper, I will argue why climate change is a problem and what we can do to combat it.
Often, when you turn on the new to more right-leaning programming, you will hear the fallacy reported that many people in the scientific community have not come to a consensus on the issue of climate change. They either argue that scientists can't seem to agree on the scientific analysis, or that there is not enough scientific evidence to come to a conclusion. This could not be further from the truth. Currently, roughly 97% of scientists agree on the existence of man-made climate change (Cook et al., 1). That is a higher percent than those who believe in the existence of gravity (Merchant). As for the claim that the scientific results aren’t in yet, well, there is an organization, called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or the IPCC, that may help to clear that issue up a bit. The IPCC released a comprehensive document in 2013 that spelled out the exact science regarding climate change (Pachauri et al.). In the most easily digestible terms, the IPCC tells us what is happening due to carbon emissions, what will happen if we do not change our course forward, and what we can do in order to reduce emissions and slow the climate impact.
First and foremost, pollution and carbon emissions are measured by PPM, or carbon Parts Per Million, which could also be understood as milligrams per liter if we were talking about water. PPM references the exact amount of carbon in our atmosphere. The IPCC states that it is safest for the earth to stay below a level of 430 PPM. At this level, our world will stay within a change of two degrees Celsius, which is what has been the agreed upon to be the level which will prevent drastic and cataclysmic change to the environment. What happens if we do go above that two-degree mark? For starters, sea levels would rise, not only wiping out island communities but endangering places like New York and Shanghai (Pidcock). With that, food sources would become scarce, which could potentially endanger large portions of the world population (Klein, 4) (Pachauri et al.). The problem is that current levels have already reached 400 PPM, and continue to rise steadily. Blue Skies Meteorological Services eloquently gives this science context. "To put 400 ppm in perspective, consider that maximum pre-industrial CO2 levels were 280 ppm and that 350 ppm is widely considered the upper limit to avoid truly dramatic climate change" ("Carbon Dioxide at 400 Ppm: What Does It Mean?”). Alarmingly, we will quickly reach the 430 PPM mark if action isn’t taken.
Adding to the confusion of this discourse, well-known climate scientist and writer, Bill McKibben, tells us that these findings from the IPCC are actually off a bit. He contends that we have less leeway than we originally thought. And that the actual number that we want to stay near is 350 PPM, a number surpassed a couple of years ago. There is also some disagreement of our current levels. Senior science writer for www.climatecentral.org, Brian Kahn, asserts that we are not actually at 400 PPM, we are higher than that. Carbon emission measurement is not a perfect science. Carbon emissions in our atmosphere do not register immediately. Essentially, they are lying dormant and over time will begin to do more damage (McKibben, "Eaarth"). The carbon emission number will continue to rise, while we delay taking corrective action to remediate the issue.
Bill McKibben recently wrote an article for the New Republic entitled "Recalculating the Climate Math." Prior to this, he had written an article that explained how dire the situation was but came back to tell us it was worse than he originally thought. According to McKibben, if we continue to burn oil at the current rate, the situation will quickly become incredibly dire. In the world, we have around 942 gigatons of oil available to be burned. However, if we want "to have even a two-thirds chance of staying below a global increase of two degrees Celsius, we can release 800 gigatons more CO2 into the atmosphere," says McKibben. Even though we can technically burn that amount and still remain below the two-degree change, t that parameter has changed due to how much the earth's temperature has risen. Now, we can only raise the temperature by 1.5 degrees Celsius if we wish to avoid severe ramifications. This means that the amount of oil we can safely burn just dropped to 353 gigatons of oil. That is so much lower than before and offers very little leeway. It is clear that immediate action is needed (McKibben, "Recalculating the Climate Math").
The depth of scientific evidence and expert testimony clarifying the issue and presenting the data, the conclusion is difficult to refute. There are two major reasons why there are large numbers of people who do not believe it. The first is money accept that man-made climate change is taking place. The primary contributing factor is that oil companies, the biggest offenders of climate injustices, make billions of dollars in profit. Hundreds of thousands of people are invested in the status quo, from independent oil extractors, transporters and distributers who profit from the industry, to politicians who rely on contributions from oil industry lobbyists ("Who Is Funding the Dakota Access Pipeline? Bank of America, HSBC, UBS, Goldman Sachs, Wells Fargo"). The petroleum companies carry huge insurance policies to cover every aspect of their operations. Like their financial industry counterparts, the oil companies are “too big to fail.” In the political arena, this becomes even more problematic when those in power are beholden to this money. For example, the new president-elect Donald Trump has major ties to oil companies ("Trump Closely Tied to Energy Transfer Partners, Operators of the Dakota Access Oil Pipeline"). It is no coincidence that he is an outspoken climate change denier. It follows that he would be a proponent for the industry that is a significant source of income for the Trump business empire. With strong petroleum industry advocates in power, it becomes profoundly difficult to gain traction on climate change issues. Further, leaders and politicians have a platform to easily reach the general public, and their authority and position lend them credibility.
A similar thing happens when people in the media are climate change deniers. These pundits espouse their opinions along with clear falsehoods on their news shows. They distort the truth to fit their own agenda. This becomes a problem for viewers are not well-versed on the subject and do not know that these media reports are misleading. Without hearing both sides of the issue, their understanding of the subject will be horribly skewed.
Those invested in denying the problem exists have even gone as far as to publish material that attempts to disprove the science around climate change. The Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change, or NIPCC, is a yearly report created by right wing conservatives in order to deny climate change (Idso et al.). If the name sounds familiar, it is by intent. Their goal is to confuse the public into believing that their information is coming from the similarly named IPCC, which is a legitimate group dedicated to assessing the science behind climate change. It is a flagrant attempt to confuse those looking for information on the subject. The NIPCC has been debunked and most people in the climate change world know the reports as gross misrepresentations funded by those with special interests in oil or other related industries that are harmful to our environment. The book discusses the well known IPCC reports and tries to show how those are lacking in scientific fact. The book offers blatant untruths in order to perpetuate their point of view, Climate change deniers embrace the book and tout it as truthful. An example of the book’s misrepresentations, "More lives are saved by global warming via the amelioration of cold-related deaths than those lost under excessive heat. Global warming will have a negligible influence on human morbidity and the spread of infectious diseases, a phenomenon observed in virtually all parts of the world" (Idso et al.). As you can see, this is simply not true and is a poorly executed attempt to deceive. These tactics are, unfortunately, highly effective because people who do not understand the facts, or who have had less education on the subject may take this for a credible source.
Here is an example that will help illustrate this: the middle of this country has thrived on coal and oil more than two and a half centuries; the advent of this industry in the 18th century literally fueled the Industrial Revolution. As climate change becomes recognized as more of an issue, more and more of those coal mines or oil wells are being closed in an attempt to focus on cleaner energy. David Wong states, "[S]ee, rural jobs used to be based around one big local business -- a factory, a coal mine, etc. When it dies, the town dies. Where I grew up, it was an oil refinery closing that did us in" (Wong). For people living in that town, they see the coal mine as the heart of the community, benefiting them in concrete and tangible ways. For them climate change is merely an abstraction. This foreign idea is now responsible for killing their town, pushing them into poverty, and taking away their jobs. They have no vested interest in supporting the correction of climate change, having never really seen any resulting ill in fact, they saw only prosperity. These people will then, due to confirmation bias, gravitate towards those newscasters and politicians that question climate change or do not think it is a priority. Rather than vilify these people, we are better served by understanding their perspectives and helping them to see the long-term benefits of protecting the environment.
There also seems to be the underlying assumption that if we stop the burning of fossil fuels our economy will collapse On the contrary, the loss of coal industry jobs can be offset by the creation of green jobs. Say, for example, solar panels become the new standard for energy. Who is going to install those solar panels? Who is going to work to upgrade and enhance each new model of those solar panels? Who is going to manufacturer those solar panels for the mass population? There are so many new jobs that can be opened up with the shutting down of the fossil fuel jobs (Pollin et al.). This could help stimulate the economy and make us much stronger and a leader in the global fight for a cleaner, safer environment.
There are many meaningful ways to address climate change in your personal life. Begin by recycling to reduce the methane-emitting waste that ends up in landfills. A surprisingly impactful change can be made by reducing meat consumptions; cattle and other livestock generate large amounts of methane when they belch, pass gas and create manure. Cycling, carpooling and taking public transportation also contribute to the long-term goal. Next, investigate changing the power source for your own home to clean energy. Many cities around the U.S. are beginning to offer alternative power options. For example, San Francisco has clean power through Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E), the city's power supplier. Along with this, you can look into purchasing your own solar panels. Most solar suppliers have financing available to defer the initial cost. The state of California offers incentive programs to assist low to middle-income households in buying solar panels. As an added bonus, any unused power can be sold back to the power companies.
To be part of a larger effort, find out which organizations in your community are working in climate change. Many organizations would greatly benefit from your time as well as a donation. In many ways, the San Francisco Bay Area is a model for local climate initiatives. For example, one can join Bill McKibben's own 350.org, John Muir's The Sierra Club, or help boost Clean Power in San Francisco. There is bound to be an organization near you where you can have an impact.
There are many ways to share information about climate change and the impact it’s having and will continue to have on our planet. Discuss what you have learned with your friends and family. Help to clarify and correct the misconceptions created by the false science being presented as fact. Arguable, the most powerful way to voice your opinion is to vote. Vote for those in political office who will address this issue and make the changes needed to safeguard the environment. Make sure that the people have a clear understanding of climate change issues.
Even though it seems daunting, and maybe even impossible, we can still make a difference and clean up our mess if we are able to stay resilient and work hard. The first step is recognizing that we have a problem, and it is pretty easy to do that when we have the science to back it up. After that, we need to allow people to join us in our cause, not belittle them until they are on the opposing side in spite of us. Bring them in and show them why we need to fix our path, and that we need their help. Finally, we can all implement at least one of the solutions that I put forward, it will just take a bit more effort. This will be a very difficult task, but again it is doable, and we will be a much stronger world once it is in motion. So please, take a look at what is near you, tell some friends and make a difference.
Works Cited:
Blue Skies Admin. "Carbon Dioxide at 400 Ppm: What Does It Mean?" Blue Skies Meteorological Services. Blue Skies Meteorological Services, 25 May 2015. Web. 12 Dec. 2016.
Chasing Ice. Dir. Jeff Orlowski and Mark Monroe. Perf. James Balog. Submarine Deluxe, 2012. DVD.
Idso, Craig D., Robert M. Carter, and Fred Singer. Why Scientists Disagree About Global Warming. Illinois: Heartland Institute, 2015. The Heartland Institute. The Heartland Institute, 2015. Web. 4 Nov. 2016.
IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.
Kahn, Brian. "The World Passes 400 PPM Threshold. Permanently." Climate Central. Climate Central, 27 Sept. 2016. Web. 9 Nov. 2016.
Klein, Naomi. This Changes Everything Capitalism vs. The Climate. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014. Print.
McKibben, Bill. “Earth Making A Life On A Tough New Planet.” New York: St. Martin's, 2011. Print.
McKibben, Bill. "Recalculating the Climate Math." New Republic. New Republic, 22 Sept. 2016. Web. 9 Nov. 2016.
Merchant, Brian. "Things Scientists Are Less Sure of Than Climate Change." Motherboard. Vice Media, 25 Sept. 2013. Web. 12 Dec. 2016.
Pidcock, Roz. "What Happens If We Overshoot the Two Degree Target for Limiting Global Warming?" Carbon Brief. Climate Brief Ltd, 10 Dec. 2014. Web. 6 Dec. 2016.
Pollin, Robert, James Heintz, and Heidi Garrett-Peltier. "The Economic Benefits of Investing in Clean Energy." Center For American Progress. Center for American Progress, 18 Jan. 2009. Web. 3 Dec. 2016.
"Trump Closely Tied to Energy Transfer Partners, Operators of the Dakota Access Oil Pipeline." Democracy Now. Democracy Now, 26 Oct. 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016.
"Who Is Funding the Dakota Access Pipeline? Bank of America, HSBC, UBS, Goldman Sachs, Wells Fargo." Democracy Now. Democracy Now, 9 Sept. 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016.
Climate change is an issue that has been noted by scientists for over 200 years, yet only entered the political arena in the 1950's. This raises the question why such a threatening issue can be shrugged off so easily by politicians and the public, alike. This is due to three major factors: the problem is huge and determining a solution is daunting; many are overwhelmed and fearful of the potential negative impact of; powerful corporations in the energy and automotive industries have financed a systematic campaign to minimize the issue. In this paper, I will argue why climate change is a problem and what we can do to combat it.
Often, when you turn on the new to more right-leaning programming, you will hear the fallacy reported that many people in the scientific community have not come to a consensus on the issue of climate change. They either argue that scientists can't seem to agree on the scientific analysis, or that there is not enough scientific evidence to come to a conclusion. This could not be further from the truth. Currently, roughly 97% of scientists agree on the existence of man-made climate change (Cook et al., 1). That is a higher percent than those who believe in the existence of gravity (Merchant). As for the claim that the scientific results aren’t in yet, well, there is an organization, called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, or the IPCC, that may help to clear that issue up a bit. The IPCC released a comprehensive document in 2013 that spelled out the exact science regarding climate change (Pachauri et al.). In the most easily digestible terms, the IPCC tells us what is happening due to carbon emissions, what will happen if we do not change our course forward, and what we can do in order to reduce emissions and slow the climate impact.
First and foremost, pollution and carbon emissions are measured by PPM, or carbon Parts Per Million, which could also be understood as milligrams per liter if we were talking about water. PPM references the exact amount of carbon in our atmosphere. The IPCC states that it is safest for the earth to stay below a level of 430 PPM. At this level, our world will stay within a change of two degrees Celsius, which is what has been the agreed upon to be the level which will prevent drastic and cataclysmic change to the environment. What happens if we do go above that two-degree mark? For starters, sea levels would rise, not only wiping out island communities but endangering places like New York and Shanghai (Pidcock). With that, food sources would become scarce, which could potentially endanger large portions of the world population (Klein, 4) (Pachauri et al.). The problem is that current levels have already reached 400 PPM, and continue to rise steadily. Blue Skies Meteorological Services eloquently gives this science context. "To put 400 ppm in perspective, consider that maximum pre-industrial CO2 levels were 280 ppm and that 350 ppm is widely considered the upper limit to avoid truly dramatic climate change" ("Carbon Dioxide at 400 Ppm: What Does It Mean?”). Alarmingly, we will quickly reach the 430 PPM mark if action isn’t taken.
Adding to the confusion of this discourse, well-known climate scientist and writer, Bill McKibben, tells us that these findings from the IPCC are actually off a bit. He contends that we have less leeway than we originally thought. And that the actual number that we want to stay near is 350 PPM, a number surpassed a couple of years ago. There is also some disagreement of our current levels. Senior science writer for www.climatecentral.org, Brian Kahn, asserts that we are not actually at 400 PPM, we are higher than that. Carbon emission measurement is not a perfect science. Carbon emissions in our atmosphere do not register immediately. Essentially, they are lying dormant and over time will begin to do more damage (McKibben, "Eaarth"). The carbon emission number will continue to rise, while we delay taking corrective action to remediate the issue.
Bill McKibben recently wrote an article for the New Republic entitled "Recalculating the Climate Math." Prior to this, he had written an article that explained how dire the situation was but came back to tell us it was worse than he originally thought. According to McKibben, if we continue to burn oil at the current rate, the situation will quickly become incredibly dire. In the world, we have around 942 gigatons of oil available to be burned. However, if we want "to have even a two-thirds chance of staying below a global increase of two degrees Celsius, we can release 800 gigatons more CO2 into the atmosphere," says McKibben. Even though we can technically burn that amount and still remain below the two-degree change, t that parameter has changed due to how much the earth's temperature has risen. Now, we can only raise the temperature by 1.5 degrees Celsius if we wish to avoid severe ramifications. This means that the amount of oil we can safely burn just dropped to 353 gigatons of oil. That is so much lower than before and offers very little leeway. It is clear that immediate action is needed (McKibben, "Recalculating the Climate Math").
The depth of scientific evidence and expert testimony clarifying the issue and presenting the data, the conclusion is difficult to refute. There are two major reasons why there are large numbers of people who do not believe it. The first is money accept that man-made climate change is taking place. The primary contributing factor is that oil companies, the biggest offenders of climate injustices, make billions of dollars in profit. Hundreds of thousands of people are invested in the status quo, from independent oil extractors, transporters and distributers who profit from the industry, to politicians who rely on contributions from oil industry lobbyists ("Who Is Funding the Dakota Access Pipeline? Bank of America, HSBC, UBS, Goldman Sachs, Wells Fargo"). The petroleum companies carry huge insurance policies to cover every aspect of their operations. Like their financial industry counterparts, the oil companies are “too big to fail.” In the political arena, this becomes even more problematic when those in power are beholden to this money. For example, the new president-elect Donald Trump has major ties to oil companies ("Trump Closely Tied to Energy Transfer Partners, Operators of the Dakota Access Oil Pipeline"). It is no coincidence that he is an outspoken climate change denier. It follows that he would be a proponent for the industry that is a significant source of income for the Trump business empire. With strong petroleum industry advocates in power, it becomes profoundly difficult to gain traction on climate change issues. Further, leaders and politicians have a platform to easily reach the general public, and their authority and position lend them credibility.
A similar thing happens when people in the media are climate change deniers. These pundits espouse their opinions along with clear falsehoods on their news shows. They distort the truth to fit their own agenda. This becomes a problem for viewers are not well-versed on the subject and do not know that these media reports are misleading. Without hearing both sides of the issue, their understanding of the subject will be horribly skewed.
Those invested in denying the problem exists have even gone as far as to publish material that attempts to disprove the science around climate change. The Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change, or NIPCC, is a yearly report created by right wing conservatives in order to deny climate change (Idso et al.). If the name sounds familiar, it is by intent. Their goal is to confuse the public into believing that their information is coming from the similarly named IPCC, which is a legitimate group dedicated to assessing the science behind climate change. It is a flagrant attempt to confuse those looking for information on the subject. The NIPCC has been debunked and most people in the climate change world know the reports as gross misrepresentations funded by those with special interests in oil or other related industries that are harmful to our environment. The book discusses the well known IPCC reports and tries to show how those are lacking in scientific fact. The book offers blatant untruths in order to perpetuate their point of view, Climate change deniers embrace the book and tout it as truthful. An example of the book’s misrepresentations, "More lives are saved by global warming via the amelioration of cold-related deaths than those lost under excessive heat. Global warming will have a negligible influence on human morbidity and the spread of infectious diseases, a phenomenon observed in virtually all parts of the world" (Idso et al.). As you can see, this is simply not true and is a poorly executed attempt to deceive. These tactics are, unfortunately, highly effective because people who do not understand the facts, or who have had less education on the subject may take this for a credible source.
Here is an example that will help illustrate this: the middle of this country has thrived on coal and oil more than two and a half centuries; the advent of this industry in the 18th century literally fueled the Industrial Revolution. As climate change becomes recognized as more of an issue, more and more of those coal mines or oil wells are being closed in an attempt to focus on cleaner energy. David Wong states, "[S]ee, rural jobs used to be based around one big local business -- a factory, a coal mine, etc. When it dies, the town dies. Where I grew up, it was an oil refinery closing that did us in" (Wong). For people living in that town, they see the coal mine as the heart of the community, benefiting them in concrete and tangible ways. For them climate change is merely an abstraction. This foreign idea is now responsible for killing their town, pushing them into poverty, and taking away their jobs. They have no vested interest in supporting the correction of climate change, having never really seen any resulting ill in fact, they saw only prosperity. These people will then, due to confirmation bias, gravitate towards those newscasters and politicians that question climate change or do not think it is a priority. Rather than vilify these people, we are better served by understanding their perspectives and helping them to see the long-term benefits of protecting the environment.
There also seems to be the underlying assumption that if we stop the burning of fossil fuels our economy will collapse On the contrary, the loss of coal industry jobs can be offset by the creation of green jobs. Say, for example, solar panels become the new standard for energy. Who is going to install those solar panels? Who is going to work to upgrade and enhance each new model of those solar panels? Who is going to manufacturer those solar panels for the mass population? There are so many new jobs that can be opened up with the shutting down of the fossil fuel jobs (Pollin et al.). This could help stimulate the economy and make us much stronger and a leader in the global fight for a cleaner, safer environment.
There are many meaningful ways to address climate change in your personal life. Begin by recycling to reduce the methane-emitting waste that ends up in landfills. A surprisingly impactful change can be made by reducing meat consumptions; cattle and other livestock generate large amounts of methane when they belch, pass gas and create manure. Cycling, carpooling and taking public transportation also contribute to the long-term goal. Next, investigate changing the power source for your own home to clean energy. Many cities around the U.S. are beginning to offer alternative power options. For example, San Francisco has clean power through Pacific Gas and Electric (PG&E), the city's power supplier. Along with this, you can look into purchasing your own solar panels. Most solar suppliers have financing available to defer the initial cost. The state of California offers incentive programs to assist low to middle-income households in buying solar panels. As an added bonus, any unused power can be sold back to the power companies.
To be part of a larger effort, find out which organizations in your community are working in climate change. Many organizations would greatly benefit from your time as well as a donation. In many ways, the San Francisco Bay Area is a model for local climate initiatives. For example, one can join Bill McKibben's own 350.org, John Muir's The Sierra Club, or help boost Clean Power in San Francisco. There is bound to be an organization near you where you can have an impact.
There are many ways to share information about climate change and the impact it’s having and will continue to have on our planet. Discuss what you have learned with your friends and family. Help to clarify and correct the misconceptions created by the false science being presented as fact. Arguable, the most powerful way to voice your opinion is to vote. Vote for those in political office who will address this issue and make the changes needed to safeguard the environment. Make sure that the people have a clear understanding of climate change issues.
Even though it seems daunting, and maybe even impossible, we can still make a difference and clean up our mess if we are able to stay resilient and work hard. The first step is recognizing that we have a problem, and it is pretty easy to do that when we have the science to back it up. After that, we need to allow people to join us in our cause, not belittle them until they are on the opposing side in spite of us. Bring them in and show them why we need to fix our path, and that we need their help. Finally, we can all implement at least one of the solutions that I put forward, it will just take a bit more effort. This will be a very difficult task, but again it is doable, and we will be a much stronger world once it is in motion. So please, take a look at what is near you, tell some friends and make a difference.
Works Cited:
Blue Skies Admin. "Carbon Dioxide at 400 Ppm: What Does It Mean?" Blue Skies Meteorological Services. Blue Skies Meteorological Services, 25 May 2015. Web. 12 Dec. 2016.
Chasing Ice. Dir. Jeff Orlowski and Mark Monroe. Perf. James Balog. Submarine Deluxe, 2012. DVD.
Idso, Craig D., Robert M. Carter, and Fred Singer. Why Scientists Disagree About Global Warming. Illinois: Heartland Institute, 2015. The Heartland Institute. The Heartland Institute, 2015. Web. 4 Nov. 2016.
IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.
Kahn, Brian. "The World Passes 400 PPM Threshold. Permanently." Climate Central. Climate Central, 27 Sept. 2016. Web. 9 Nov. 2016.
Klein, Naomi. This Changes Everything Capitalism vs. The Climate. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014. Print.
McKibben, Bill. “Earth Making A Life On A Tough New Planet.” New York: St. Martin's, 2011. Print.
McKibben, Bill. "Recalculating the Climate Math." New Republic. New Republic, 22 Sept. 2016. Web. 9 Nov. 2016.
Merchant, Brian. "Things Scientists Are Less Sure of Than Climate Change." Motherboard. Vice Media, 25 Sept. 2013. Web. 12 Dec. 2016.
Pidcock, Roz. "What Happens If We Overshoot the Two Degree Target for Limiting Global Warming?" Carbon Brief. Climate Brief Ltd, 10 Dec. 2014. Web. 6 Dec. 2016.
Pollin, Robert, James Heintz, and Heidi Garrett-Peltier. "The Economic Benefits of Investing in Clean Energy." Center For American Progress. Center for American Progress, 18 Jan. 2009. Web. 3 Dec. 2016.
"Trump Closely Tied to Energy Transfer Partners, Operators of the Dakota Access Oil Pipeline." Democracy Now. Democracy Now, 26 Oct. 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016.
"Who Is Funding the Dakota Access Pipeline? Bank of America, HSBC, UBS, Goldman Sachs, Wells Fargo." Democracy Now. Democracy Now, 9 Sept. 2016. Web. 8 Nov. 2016.
Jovana Toscano
Neurotribes and Making Peace with Autism
Neurotribes and Making Peace with Autism
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Jovana Toscano is a second year student at SF State and owes much of her growth as a writer to all of her professors thus far who have given her the creative freedom to shape her own voice as a writer. As a San Francisco native she’s come to love and appreciate all that this city has to offer. With an appreciation for History and English she is honored at any chance she gets to write stories about those who are often misunderstood and underrepresented. Much of her writing is inspired by her culture and family.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, LINDA SWANSON:
Jovana’s essay is in response to “The Book Club assignment (English 214) wherein students form book clubs with selections of their choosing, then write essays with research focusing on a topic from those self-selected books. The assignment asks students to present a comprehensive overview of the book and conclude with their own thoughts, insights, and opinions. Jovana’s writing exhibits a lyrical quality and reaches the reader’s emotions. It was a pleasure to have Jovana as a student and watch the confidence in her writing grow.
Jovana Toscano is a second year student at SF State and owes much of her growth as a writer to all of her professors thus far who have given her the creative freedom to shape her own voice as a writer. As a San Francisco native she’s come to love and appreciate all that this city has to offer. With an appreciation for History and English she is honored at any chance she gets to write stories about those who are often misunderstood and underrepresented. Much of her writing is inspired by her culture and family.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, LINDA SWANSON:
Jovana’s essay is in response to “The Book Club assignment (English 214) wherein students form book clubs with selections of their choosing, then write essays with research focusing on a topic from those self-selected books. The assignment asks students to present a comprehensive overview of the book and conclude with their own thoughts, insights, and opinions. Jovana’s writing exhibits a lyrical quality and reaches the reader’s emotions. It was a pleasure to have Jovana as a student and watch the confidence in her writing grow.
The New York Times recognizes NeuroTribes as, “beautifully told, humanizing, important” (Silberman 1). This highly influential text by Steve Silberman addresses autism from the view of scientists and medical professionals but also features what autism is like for the families and individuals who live with autism. Steve Silberman challenges Hans Asperger’s view, that autism is a disease, by answering the question what is autism? And furthermore is it possible to find peace with autism? Steve Silberman uses both historical and contemporary case studies to reveal that autism has persisted over centuries, and that the best way to address autism is not to treat it as a disease, but rather to embrace it as a sign of neuro diversity. This promotes tolerance in communities and unity and love within families with autistic members.
Silberman begins his book with a story about a man, named Cavendish. Cavendish lived during the late eighteenth century and was known to be quiet and asocial but incredibly intelligent. Many criticized him for being rude and for being non-conforming. Some even attributed his unconventionality to magic, accusing him of performing witchcraft. Cavendish’s story proves that autism has existed for centuries. Before it was given a name, people living with autism were often ridiculed for acting, thinking, and living differently. NeuroTribes uses historical case studies, like Cavendish’s story, and modern day cases to prove that autism is not a disease, but instead a form of Neurodiversity. NeuroTribes delves into what it means to be a child living on the spectrum and how people are starting to change their understanding of what it means to be autistic.
Autism is often described and perceived as a disorder that causes a child or individual to suffer from impairments. The accepted definition of autism is “a condition, which has its onset in childhood and is marked by severely limited responsiveness to other persons, restricted behavior patterns, difficulty with abstract concepts, and usually abnormal speech development” (OED). These views on autism come from Hans Asperger ‘s historical research. His studies on autistic children began classifying autistic youth as diseased, sick, and abnormal. He believed that children became autistic due to neglect and suffering. This implied that autism was a disease caused by parents. The parents undoubtedly felt stigmatized, which encouraged them to try to “fix” their children. Silberman defies Asperger, arguing that while there is not a definite cure for autism, the best way to treat autism is to become at peace with autism. Silberman wants parents of autistic children to realize that their children are not sick, but instead born with different capabilities. The families affected by autism are not alone in the world, and the parents are not at fault for their child’s condition.
Finding peace with autism is difficult, but Neuro Tribes highlights the many cases in which autistic children have found comfort in attending therapy that teaches them self-care and thereby creates regularity in their lives. In “The boy who loves green straws,” chapter two of NeuroTribes, the reader is introduced to Leo Rosa, a young boy living with autism. He is the son of Craig and Shannon Rosa who live in Redwood City with Leo and their two other daughters. This chapter focuses on Leo’s life, the constant efforts of Leo’s parents, and the hardship the family has faced in coming to accept Leo’s autism. Moreover, this chapter shows how the experience of Leo’s family mimics that of countless other families. Leo’s parents have, by necessity, become accustomed to the difficulties that can arise with autism, and they have had to change many aspects of their life to create a safe place for Leo. Living with autism took the Rosa family through multiple stages, and at times they felt guilt and frustration. After several difficult years they learned that patience and acceptance are key components of making peace with Leo’s autism. Silberman uses the story of Leo and his family to show what it is like for parents to finally realize that their child cannot be cured. The Rosas demonstrate that it takes time to accept autism as part of what makes their child who they are, and while their child was born with distinct capabilities, it is important to remember that the only way to aid an autistic child is to embrace their differences and provide them with the tools and resources that will help them use their endowments effectively.
Being the sibling of someone who is autistic can cause drastic changes to many aspects of your life. Not only are you trying to grow and define yourself, but you are now responsible for making sure that you are caring for your sibling. In the article, “My Brother is Autistic” by Henry Benshoter, Henry discusses what it is like having a brother who is autistic. He discusses how different his life is with an autistic brother, but he also discusses how his brother has benefited his family. He states, “It's funny—having George in the family has brought all of us closer together. He's a connection point. He's a responsibility that we all share. It has taught us to compromise” (Benshoter 2). Living with a sibling who has autism definitely puts the world in a different perspective. It teaches patience and understanding. It puts obstacles in a family’s path that they must work together to overcome.
In Neuro Tribes, a poem by one of Leo’s sisters is featured:
Leo
My Brother
Leo is different
Yet I love him
still. Hits, grabs elbows,
chews on straws, I cope with all of this
For I am his sister (Silberman 50).
Ten-year old Zelly wrote this poem about her brother because, even though having an autistic sibling can be arduous, Leo is the reason the Rosas are such a close-knit family. Zelly loves Leo no matter what, and amidst all the challenges the family faces, Leo is who he is and the Rosas would not change him for anything. Enduring the struggles of autism, as a family, has created a strong sense of unity between the Rosas.
Silberman begins his book with a story about a man, named Cavendish. Cavendish lived during the late eighteenth century and was known to be quiet and asocial but incredibly intelligent. Many criticized him for being rude and for being non-conforming. Some even attributed his unconventionality to magic, accusing him of performing witchcraft. Cavendish’s story proves that autism has existed for centuries. Before it was given a name, people living with autism were often ridiculed for acting, thinking, and living differently. NeuroTribes uses historical case studies, like Cavendish’s story, and modern day cases to prove that autism is not a disease, but instead a form of Neurodiversity. NeuroTribes delves into what it means to be a child living on the spectrum and how people are starting to change their understanding of what it means to be autistic.
Autism is often described and perceived as a disorder that causes a child or individual to suffer from impairments. The accepted definition of autism is “a condition, which has its onset in childhood and is marked by severely limited responsiveness to other persons, restricted behavior patterns, difficulty with abstract concepts, and usually abnormal speech development” (OED). These views on autism come from Hans Asperger ‘s historical research. His studies on autistic children began classifying autistic youth as diseased, sick, and abnormal. He believed that children became autistic due to neglect and suffering. This implied that autism was a disease caused by parents. The parents undoubtedly felt stigmatized, which encouraged them to try to “fix” their children. Silberman defies Asperger, arguing that while there is not a definite cure for autism, the best way to treat autism is to become at peace with autism. Silberman wants parents of autistic children to realize that their children are not sick, but instead born with different capabilities. The families affected by autism are not alone in the world, and the parents are not at fault for their child’s condition.
Finding peace with autism is difficult, but Neuro Tribes highlights the many cases in which autistic children have found comfort in attending therapy that teaches them self-care and thereby creates regularity in their lives. In “The boy who loves green straws,” chapter two of NeuroTribes, the reader is introduced to Leo Rosa, a young boy living with autism. He is the son of Craig and Shannon Rosa who live in Redwood City with Leo and their two other daughters. This chapter focuses on Leo’s life, the constant efforts of Leo’s parents, and the hardship the family has faced in coming to accept Leo’s autism. Moreover, this chapter shows how the experience of Leo’s family mimics that of countless other families. Leo’s parents have, by necessity, become accustomed to the difficulties that can arise with autism, and they have had to change many aspects of their life to create a safe place for Leo. Living with autism took the Rosa family through multiple stages, and at times they felt guilt and frustration. After several difficult years they learned that patience and acceptance are key components of making peace with Leo’s autism. Silberman uses the story of Leo and his family to show what it is like for parents to finally realize that their child cannot be cured. The Rosas demonstrate that it takes time to accept autism as part of what makes their child who they are, and while their child was born with distinct capabilities, it is important to remember that the only way to aid an autistic child is to embrace their differences and provide them with the tools and resources that will help them use their endowments effectively.
Being the sibling of someone who is autistic can cause drastic changes to many aspects of your life. Not only are you trying to grow and define yourself, but you are now responsible for making sure that you are caring for your sibling. In the article, “My Brother is Autistic” by Henry Benshoter, Henry discusses what it is like having a brother who is autistic. He discusses how different his life is with an autistic brother, but he also discusses how his brother has benefited his family. He states, “It's funny—having George in the family has brought all of us closer together. He's a connection point. He's a responsibility that we all share. It has taught us to compromise” (Benshoter 2). Living with a sibling who has autism definitely puts the world in a different perspective. It teaches patience and understanding. It puts obstacles in a family’s path that they must work together to overcome.
In Neuro Tribes, a poem by one of Leo’s sisters is featured:
Leo
My Brother
Leo is different
Yet I love him
still. Hits, grabs elbows,
chews on straws, I cope with all of this
For I am his sister (Silberman 50).
Ten-year old Zelly wrote this poem about her brother because, even though having an autistic sibling can be arduous, Leo is the reason the Rosas are such a close-knit family. Zelly loves Leo no matter what, and amidst all the challenges the family faces, Leo is who he is and the Rosas would not change him for anything. Enduring the struggles of autism, as a family, has created a strong sense of unity between the Rosas.
JUNIORS
Isaiah Dale
The Oriflammes of Non-Opportunistic Individuals
The Oriflammes of Non-Opportunistic Individuals
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Isaiah Dale is twenty-one years old, an African American male, and this will be his third published essay. He is an English Literature major and English tutor at SF State, also a first-generation student who aims to inspire other members of his family to attend and graduate college. As an African American, he feels it is his duty to continue to collect such prestigious accolades. He wants to show and prove to other African Americans that it can be done. His goal is to obtain a PhD in Literature, specializing in African American Literature, so that he can teach at the university level. Currently, he is working on a novel entitled Colors, which he hopes will shed light on racial issues.
PROMPT FROM INSTRUCTOR RICARDO GARZA:
Write an expository essay in which you agree or disagree with the claim that anyone can become affluent
Isaiah Dale is twenty-one years old, an African American male, and this will be his third published essay. He is an English Literature major and English tutor at SF State, also a first-generation student who aims to inspire other members of his family to attend and graduate college. As an African American, he feels it is his duty to continue to collect such prestigious accolades. He wants to show and prove to other African Americans that it can be done. His goal is to obtain a PhD in Literature, specializing in African American Literature, so that he can teach at the university level. Currently, he is working on a novel entitled Colors, which he hopes will shed light on racial issues.
PROMPT FROM INSTRUCTOR RICARDO GARZA:
Write an expository essay in which you agree or disagree with the claim that anyone can become affluent
Cultural separatism will inevitably lead to annihilation in America, yet our nation’s leaders do nothing to address this crucial issue. In America, equality and justice do not coexist, for even if one is accomplished the other is neglected completely. Individuals in America desperately want equality, but the schism between aspiration and reality could not be more pronounced. There are many ideas as to why equality in America is diminishing including racial profiling, gender equality, and the economic gap between rich and poor. Yet, America has inadequately addressed inequality since the colonization of Jamestown. America is a country where class, race, gender, and religion determine quality of life, yet many choose to believe that these factors do not play a role in society. It is clear that an individual’s opportunity to be successful in America is already predetermined, and that the odds of altering this fixed fate are slim to none.
Throughout the history of America, our leaders have emphasized equality, but equality in this country remains unattainable. In past and present America, politicians have listed equality as either an achievement or as an attainable aspiration. No such claim comes without critics or detractors, and whether or not equality has or ever will be achieved is still debated. In “The Inequality Cycle” Oren Cass states that, “Inequality matters first and foremost for its effect on opportunity. A type of inequality that stifles opportunity will replicate itself by leaving those born into hardship with no viable exit” (Cass 33). Cass illustrates how equality affects everything for without equality, one’s opportunities to be successful are limited and stunted compared to someone who is afforded the privilege of access. Moreover, cultural separatism contributes to the unequal treatment of individuals, for most minorities today would rather stay in their inculcated cultural groups than venture forth into different cultures. This phenomenon is called “hypersegregation.” Rima Wilkes and John Iceland write about this term in their article “Hypersegregation in the Twenty-First Century.” Hypersegregation occurs when different races or cultures are partitioned. This issue is slowly deteriorating America, for if individuals cannot be open to and inclusive of different cultures, then America will remain divided.
Americans are taught from a young age that anything is possible, but this idea is a fallacy. If one is abnormally tall, astonishingly beautiful, or born into a wealthy family then perhaps the promise holds true, but if one is all around average the amount of opportunity in America is notably limited. In “Class in America–2009” Gregory Mantsios states that:
Throughout the history of America, our leaders have emphasized equality, but equality in this country remains unattainable. In past and present America, politicians have listed equality as either an achievement or as an attainable aspiration. No such claim comes without critics or detractors, and whether or not equality has or ever will be achieved is still debated. In “The Inequality Cycle” Oren Cass states that, “Inequality matters first and foremost for its effect on opportunity. A type of inequality that stifles opportunity will replicate itself by leaving those born into hardship with no viable exit” (Cass 33). Cass illustrates how equality affects everything for without equality, one’s opportunities to be successful are limited and stunted compared to someone who is afforded the privilege of access. Moreover, cultural separatism contributes to the unequal treatment of individuals, for most minorities today would rather stay in their inculcated cultural groups than venture forth into different cultures. This phenomenon is called “hypersegregation.” Rima Wilkes and John Iceland write about this term in their article “Hypersegregation in the Twenty-First Century.” Hypersegregation occurs when different races or cultures are partitioned. This issue is slowly deteriorating America, for if individuals cannot be open to and inclusive of different cultures, then America will remain divided.
Americans are taught from a young age that anything is possible, but this idea is a fallacy. If one is abnormally tall, astonishingly beautiful, or born into a wealthy family then perhaps the promise holds true, but if one is all around average the amount of opportunity in America is notably limited. In “Class in America–2009” Gregory Mantsios states that:
Big-payoff reality shows, celebrity salaries, and multi-million dollar lotteries notwithstanding, evidence suggests that the level of inequality in the United States is getting higher. Census data shows the gap between the rich and the poor to be the widest since the government began collecting information in 1947 and this gap is continuing to grow (285).
Mantsios shows the reader how the rich are becoming richer while the poor remain limited in their financial mobility. Moreover, Mantsios talks about how women are more likely to become poor than men. This is a prime example of gender inequality, for society has always restricted women in one form or another. Furthermore, individuals should recognize that the differences in economic standing between the rich and poor are simply unjust, and individuals in the lower class or even middle class will inevitably struggle in America. Class determines a multitude of things, such as wealth, physical and mental well-being, and housing. Between the upper and lower class, the difference in these variables is striking. This inequity will go on indefinitely because the top 1 percent has a vested interest in maintaining the status quo. If members of affluent society were introduced to lower-class people, they would realize that the impoverished are suffering immensely.
Despite the persistent existence of hate groups and entrenched racial segregation, America is still a country where democracy rules. To keep a true democracy, we must strive for cultural pluralism. Meaning, individuals must sway from their stubborn upbringings and begin to venture out into different cultures. In “Deconstructing America” Patrick Buchanan argues that, “a nation based on ‘democracy, diversity, and equality’ is un likely to thrive” (46). Buchanan believes that large swaths of people refuse to accept cultural difference in this nation. He is correct when stating that equality, diversity, and democracy will not survive because there is no universal embrace of coexistence and interchange. Cultural pluralism is a remedy for inequality. It is achieved when any individual, who maintains their cultural identity and values, is accepted by mainstream society. However, the individual is not restricted to their own culture, and instead ventures out to experience other cultures as well. People rarely seek cultural pluralism because they feel threatened by diversity. Some are even hostile towards diversity. The article “From Diversity to Pluralism” states that, “Pluralism is not the sheer fact of diversity alone, but is active engagement with that diversity. One can be critical of it or threatened by it. But real pluralism requires participation and engagement.” This quote reveals the truth about cultural pluralism—it is not something that takes practice or time, but instead takes courage. Cultural pluralism is essential in America because once individuals begin to experience and validate other cultures, we, as a nation, will truly begin to experience equality.
America is often described as a joyful and equal society where opportunities abound. This vision is attractive but untrue. In “It’s Hard to Make It in America” Lane Kenworthy states, “Today, people who were born worse off tend to have fewer opportunities in life. Comparing outcomes is not foolproof, as differences in outcomes can result from differences in effort. But a person’s effort is itself shaped by the circumstances he or she encounters” (2). The reality is, opportunities in America are largely determined by where an individual is born and where they grow up, yet many Americans choose to believe that opportunity is universal. Throughout the history of this nation, evidence has shown that the rich are afforded privileges and opportunities, while the middle class and poor must struggle and overcome great adversity to prosper.
The revered narrative of economic and social mobility is a fallacy. People immigrate to America for economic opportunity, yet there are cultural, racial, and societal obstacles that must be overcome to attain those opportunities. Hard work does not ensure success. For example, some of the hardest working individuals in America are field workers, but field workers are paid the lowest wages in our economy. African-American women have a higher chance of being poor than any other demographic. These are just two examples that show how race, gender, and class discrimination dictates success more than any person’s work ethic.
America must strive for cultural pluralism because cultural separatism will only lead to inequality, rage, and feasibly war. We have seen cultural separatism and the racist and xenophobic attitudes it fosters undermine the American dream. No human being should experience the disenfranchisement that comes from separatism. It is an affront to dignity, humanity, and to the ideal American identity.
Works Cited:
Buchanan, Patrick. “Deconstructing America” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen, and Bonnie Lisle. Bedfort/St. Martin’s. 2007.
Cass, Oren. "The Inequality Cycle. (Cover Story)." National Review 67.18 (2015): 32-35. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.
Kenworthy, Lane. "It's Hard To Make It In America." Foreign Affairs91.6 (2012): 97-109. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.
Mantsios, Gregory. “Class in America-2009.” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen, and Bonnie Lisle. Bedford/St. Martin’s. 2007. 281-297. Print.
Wilkes, Rima, and John Iceland. "Hypersegregation in the Twenty-First Century." Demography, 41.1 (2004): 23-36.
Despite the persistent existence of hate groups and entrenched racial segregation, America is still a country where democracy rules. To keep a true democracy, we must strive for cultural pluralism. Meaning, individuals must sway from their stubborn upbringings and begin to venture out into different cultures. In “Deconstructing America” Patrick Buchanan argues that, “a nation based on ‘democracy, diversity, and equality’ is un likely to thrive” (46). Buchanan believes that large swaths of people refuse to accept cultural difference in this nation. He is correct when stating that equality, diversity, and democracy will not survive because there is no universal embrace of coexistence and interchange. Cultural pluralism is a remedy for inequality. It is achieved when any individual, who maintains their cultural identity and values, is accepted by mainstream society. However, the individual is not restricted to their own culture, and instead ventures out to experience other cultures as well. People rarely seek cultural pluralism because they feel threatened by diversity. Some are even hostile towards diversity. The article “From Diversity to Pluralism” states that, “Pluralism is not the sheer fact of diversity alone, but is active engagement with that diversity. One can be critical of it or threatened by it. But real pluralism requires participation and engagement.” This quote reveals the truth about cultural pluralism—it is not something that takes practice or time, but instead takes courage. Cultural pluralism is essential in America because once individuals begin to experience and validate other cultures, we, as a nation, will truly begin to experience equality.
America is often described as a joyful and equal society where opportunities abound. This vision is attractive but untrue. In “It’s Hard to Make It in America” Lane Kenworthy states, “Today, people who were born worse off tend to have fewer opportunities in life. Comparing outcomes is not foolproof, as differences in outcomes can result from differences in effort. But a person’s effort is itself shaped by the circumstances he or she encounters” (2). The reality is, opportunities in America are largely determined by where an individual is born and where they grow up, yet many Americans choose to believe that opportunity is universal. Throughout the history of this nation, evidence has shown that the rich are afforded privileges and opportunities, while the middle class and poor must struggle and overcome great adversity to prosper.
The revered narrative of economic and social mobility is a fallacy. People immigrate to America for economic opportunity, yet there are cultural, racial, and societal obstacles that must be overcome to attain those opportunities. Hard work does not ensure success. For example, some of the hardest working individuals in America are field workers, but field workers are paid the lowest wages in our economy. African-American women have a higher chance of being poor than any other demographic. These are just two examples that show how race, gender, and class discrimination dictates success more than any person’s work ethic.
America must strive for cultural pluralism because cultural separatism will only lead to inequality, rage, and feasibly war. We have seen cultural separatism and the racist and xenophobic attitudes it fosters undermine the American dream. No human being should experience the disenfranchisement that comes from separatism. It is an affront to dignity, humanity, and to the ideal American identity.
Works Cited:
Buchanan, Patrick. “Deconstructing America” Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. Gary Colombo, Robert Cullen, and Bonnie Lisle. Bedfort/St. Martin’s. 2007.
Cass, Oren. "The Inequality Cycle. (Cover Story)." National Review 67.18 (2015): 32-35. Academic Search Premier. Web. 24 Nov. 2015.
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Jose Francisco
Community Assessment: Bayview -Hunter’s Point
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Jose Francisco is a junior at San Francisco State University where he majors in health education with an emphasis on community-based public health. He grew up in both the Bay Area and islands of the Philippines, and it was at San Francisco State where he grew his passion for social justice and health promotion. Currently, he is a health educator at Gateway High School in San Francisco and a teaching assistant under the College of Health Education at San Francisco State. He is interested in utilizing his knowledge of health education, public health, and community outreach to promote and influence health equity, most especially for minority communities. He uses his writing to voice and raise awareness among issues that range from health to the environment. Jose is also an advocate for LGBTQ rights, where he published an article on the Golden Gate Xpress this spring about the inequality of health care services for the LGBTQ on his campus. He has also created the online platform "LGBTQ+ Health Equality," which serves to amplify the health care inequality that the LGBTQ+ community in his campus face. On his free time, he enjoys painting, riding on his longboard, cooking, and reading James Baldwin. After his studies, he wishes to pursue a career in government and policy.
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR RUBY TURALBA:
In the first of four sequenced and scaffolded Health Education courses, students research and develop a comprehensive community profile of a specific San Francisco neighborhood. Extensive data spanning the history, demographics, health disparities, assets and deficits in the built environment, and crime reports are collected and thoroughly analyzed to develop sound recommendations and strategies addressing root causes of health inequities.
Jose’s piece presents a thoughtful and critical analysis of the social conditions in Bayview Hunter’s Point, particularly in his exploration of asthma, environmental racism, and historical neglect. He provides viable solutions that integrate corporate accountability, zoning and housing policies, and increased access to education and health care fostering community organizing and mobilization for change.
Jose Francisco is a junior at San Francisco State University where he majors in health education with an emphasis on community-based public health. He grew up in both the Bay Area and islands of the Philippines, and it was at San Francisco State where he grew his passion for social justice and health promotion. Currently, he is a health educator at Gateway High School in San Francisco and a teaching assistant under the College of Health Education at San Francisco State. He is interested in utilizing his knowledge of health education, public health, and community outreach to promote and influence health equity, most especially for minority communities. He uses his writing to voice and raise awareness among issues that range from health to the environment. Jose is also an advocate for LGBTQ rights, where he published an article on the Golden Gate Xpress this spring about the inequality of health care services for the LGBTQ on his campus. He has also created the online platform "LGBTQ+ Health Equality," which serves to amplify the health care inequality that the LGBTQ+ community in his campus face. On his free time, he enjoys painting, riding on his longboard, cooking, and reading James Baldwin. After his studies, he wishes to pursue a career in government and policy.
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR RUBY TURALBA:
In the first of four sequenced and scaffolded Health Education courses, students research and develop a comprehensive community profile of a specific San Francisco neighborhood. Extensive data spanning the history, demographics, health disparities, assets and deficits in the built environment, and crime reports are collected and thoroughly analyzed to develop sound recommendations and strategies addressing root causes of health inequities.
Jose’s piece presents a thoughtful and critical analysis of the social conditions in Bayview Hunter’s Point, particularly in his exploration of asthma, environmental racism, and historical neglect. He provides viable solutions that integrate corporate accountability, zoning and housing policies, and increased access to education and health care fostering community organizing and mobilization for change.
DESCRIPTION
Roughly bounded within Evans Avenue to the north, the San Francisco Bay to the east, Paul Avenue to the south, and Rankin Street to the west, the Bayview-Hunters Point District (BVHP) is located in the southeastern section of San Francisco (SF) (San Francisco Planning Department [SF Planning Dept.], 2016a). BVHP’s zip code is 94124 and is part of District 10 under Supervisor Malia Cohen (SF Planning Dept., 2016a). Geographic landmarks of the district include Sam Jordan’s Bar, Quinn House and Sylvester House, which are some of the oldest houses in the district, Bayview Opera House, and Hunters Point Spring-Albion Brewery (SF Planning Dept., 2016b; U.S. Department of the Interior, 2016).
HISTORY
Before the 1700s, the Ohlone people, a Native American tribe of northern California, settled BVHP (Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of San Francisco, 2015). Upon the arrival of Spanish missionaries, Franciscan monks used BVHP for cattle ranching (O’brien, 2005). Jose Cornelio Bernal sold BVHP in 1849 and then commissioned brothers John, Philip, and Robert Hunter to develop the real estate; they in turn gave the area the name Hunters Point. In the 1860s, BVHP started to become an integral part of the U.S. military and cattle industry; the first permanent dry dock on the Pacific Ocean was built on BVHP’s bordering bay in 1867, and SF butchers established Butchertown on BVHP’s marshland in 1868 (Dillon, 2011). BVHP also became part of the shrimp fishing industry, established by the Chinese community in the 1880s (Roscoe, 1995). However, the industrial sector dominated the area throughout World War I and World War II when the U.S. Navy purchased property in BVHP to develop the SF Naval Shipyard (Dillon, 2011). The shipbuilding industry drew an influx of African Americans during the Great Migration and urban renewal displacement in SF (Roscoe, 1995). The Navy closed the shipyard and naval base in 1994, which stimulated efforts to improve conditions by the industrial sector. The negative consequences of projects ranging from coal and oil-fired power plants to a naval radiology lab are still felt in the BVHP community today. (Dillon, 2011).
DEMOGRAPHICS
According to Healthy Communities Institute (HCI) (2016a), in 2016, BVHP had a population that consisted of 33% Asian/Pacific Islander, 28.66% Hispanic/Latino, 27% Black/African American, 13.12% white, and 5.73% multi-ethnic. The median income from 2010-2014 was $22,002, much lower compared to state and national level, while 23.5% of BVHP were living among the poverty level (HCI, 2016b; HCI, 2016c). The San Francisco Department of Public Health (SFDPH) (2012) reports that in terms of education attainment, 36% had less than high school, 24% had high school or equivalent, and 40% had continued onto higher education. Furthermore, in terms of health insurance, 29% had private, 26% had Medicare, and 36% had Medi-Cal.
HEALTH
Diabetes, heart disease and stroke, and respiratory disease are among the predominant public health issues faced by BVHP residents. From 2012-2014, the rate of diabetes was 42.9/10,000—the highest rate compared to all SF neighborhoods and exceeding the state average of 25.8/10,000; the rate of heart disease/stroke was 21.6/10,000, the highest rate in comparison to all other SF neighborhoods and exceeding the state average of 8.6/10,000; the rate of respiratory disease was 88.5/10,000, the second highest rate compared to all SF neighborhoods, only 0.4% lower than the Tenderloin, and alarmingly exceeding the state average of 34.5/10,000 (HCI, 2016d).
U.S. CENSUS BUREAU DATA
The census tracts (CT) in BVHP are 980900, 061200, 023103, 023400, 023300, 023200, 023102, 980600, 061000 (San Francisco Planning Department [SF Planning Dept.], 2016a). CT 231.03, 234.00, and 232.00 were selected in the first analysis because they all fall within both the Bayview and the Hunters Point designation by the SF Planning Department. Ultimately, CT 231.03 was chosen because it was the median of the three CTs in terms of the number of total households. It disproportionately had the lowest levels of household income, having four times more households earning < $10,000 compared to CT 234 and three times more households earning < $10,000 compared to CT 232 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014d).
A. Race/Ethnicity
The majority of the ethnicity makeup of CT 231.03 is Black/African American, accounting for 50.6% of its population, twenty times greater compared to SF with only 5.5%. Further, in CT 231.03, Native Hawaiians and
other Pacific Islander peoples, Hispanic/Latinos, and people with two or more races account for more of the population compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islander peoples account for 10.7% of the population, almost ten times more compared to SF with only 0.4%; Hispanic/Latinos account for 21.4% of the population, almost double compared to SF with 15.3%; and people with two or more races account for 8.4%, twice as high compared to SF with 3.4%. Whites and Asians account for less of the population in CT 231.03 compared to SF as a whole. In SF, Whites account for 41.4% of the population, almost six times more compared to CT 231.03 with 7.4%; while Asians account for 33.3% of the population of SF, more than eleven times more compared to CT 231.03 with 3.1%.
B. Education Attainment
Educational attainment was much lower in CT 231.03 compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, 54.1% have attained a high school education (or equivalent) or less; while in SF, 52.9% have attained a bachelor’s degree or higher. The level of those whose highest education attainment was less than a9th grade education in CT 231.03 is 14.3%, measured against SF with 8.2%. The level of those whose highest education attainment was 9th to 12th grade, with no diploma, is 11.7% in BVHP, more than double compared to SF with 5.1%. The highest overall education attainment in CT 231.03 was a high school education (or equivalent) with 28.1%, close to a third. In SF, in contrast, the top educational attainment was a bachelor’s degree with 32.2%, more than double in comparison to CT 231.03 with only 14.5%. Further, in SF, 20.7% have attained a graduate or professional degree, nine times greater compared to CT 231.03 with 2.3%.
C. Household Income Levels
The household income levels are much lower in CT: 231.03 compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, less than 13% of households make $50,000 or more; while in SF, more that 60% of households make $50,000 or more. In SF, the income of $200,000 or more accounts for the highest percentage of households, while in CT 231.03 no household has an income of $200,000 or more. Almost a fourth of households in CT 231.03 make < $10,000 in income with 24.8%, compared to SF where only 6.5% make < $10,000, which is almost four times lower compared to CT 231.03. CT 231.03 also has twice as many households that make an income of $10,000 to $14,999 with 13.1%, compared to SF with 6.1%. Further, there are almost three times as many households that make an income of $15,000 to $24,000 in CT 231.03 with 22.7%, compared to SF with 7.8%.
D. Population by Age
CT 231.03 has a greater number of young people compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, 15.4% of the population is 14 years old or younger, almost a third greater than SF at 11.3%. The age distribution of CT 231.03 from 15 years old or older closely resemble SF overall. However, members of the population who are 35-39 years old in CT 231.03 account for 4.4%, almost twice as high compared to SF with 8.5%.
E. Employment Status
The unemployment rates in BVHP are much higher compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, 24.9% are unemployed, almost five times greater compared to SF with only 5.3%. Further, the rates of employment status are much lower in CT 231.03 with 34%, almost two times greater compared to SF with 64%.
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
Halima Dos, Jose Francisco, Lorena Gonzalez, and Stephanie Vargas conducted an observational tour of BVHP on Wednesday, October 27, 2016 under the instruction of Professor Ruby Turalba, MPH of the Health Education Department at San Francisco State University. The walking and driving tour both occurred in the afternoon from around 2:00 PM to 4:00 PM, lasting almost two hours. The first hour of the tour was dedicated to the driving portion. The following streets were visited: from Evans Avenue and Third Street, the northern boundary of BVHP, to Paul Avenue and Third Street, the southern boundary of BVHP; Gilman Avenue, Crisp Road, and Hussey Street, which are in close proximity to the bordering San Francisco Bay, the eastern boundary of BVHP, and Oakdale Avenue and Rankin Street—the northern boundary of BVHP. The second hour of the tour was dedicated to the walking portion starting from Evans Avenue and Third Street to Palou Avenue and Third Street, which spanned twelve blocks. Francisco conducted an additional individual walking tour on Wednesday, November 16, 2016. The individual walking tour occurred in the afternoon from around 4:30 PM to 5:30 PM, lasting almost an hour. The same twelve blocks of Evans Avenue and Third Street to Palou Avenue and Third Street were visited to expand on observations from the first walking tour.
ASSETS
A. Community Organizations
There is an abundance of community organizations in BVHP that include College Track, Salvation Army, Bayview Hunters Point Youth, Southeast Sector Community Development Corporation, Offices for Justice, Positive Directions Equal, Project Bayview, and Meals on Wheels (HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016). During the walking tour, it was observed that there was at least one organization per block in the twelve blocks on Third Street that were surveyed. From helping high school students graduate and bridge them to four-year universities at College Track, to helping people receive access to legal help at Offices for Justice and Salvation Army, the community organizations in BVHP are assets because they assist individuals within the community receive access to resources they might not otherwise receive.
B. Community Spaces
Public spaces such as parks and libraries offer people in BVHP access to locations where they can safely gather and receive further resources. Community areas in BVHP include the Youngblood-Coleman Playground and Bayview Linda Brooks-Burton Branch Library where residents can receive not only resources such as books and computers, but also hold events for organizations such as the Latino Parent Club and other multicultural programs for young people. Additionally, the Joseph Lee Recreation Center provides a place where people in the community can find a wide selection of games, sports, programs, and classes. Furthermore, the Bayview Opera House hosts community events such as dances and meetings. Lastly, the Clean Lounge is a space where people in the community hold health and non-alcoholic events (Bayview Operahouse, 2016; (HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016; San Francisco Public Library, 2016; SF Rec & Park, 2016). These spaces help create and strengthen the BVHP community.
C. Public Transportation
MUNI lines in BVHP include the T-line train, 29-Sunset bus, 44-O’Shaughnessy bus, and 24-Divisadero bus (JF, personal observation, 2016). A fourth of CT 231.03 utilizes public transportation to commute to work; these MUNI lines are significant for the mobility of the labor force within the community (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014d). From the walking tour, it was observed that a lot of elementary students, high school students, and senior citizens also utilize public transportation. Additionally, it makes it easy for people outside of the community to travel to and from BVHP, with the T-line train coming at least every ten minutes, and the buses coming at least every ten to fifteen minutes (JF, personal observation, 2016). The MUNI buses and the MUNI train are also wheelchair accessible, and almost every stop on Third Street, where the T-line runs, has a platform where people who use wheelchairs can easily get on and off.
DEFICITS
A. Lack of Fresh Food Markets
During both walking tours, there was only one fresh food market in the twelve-block stretch that was noticed; during the driving tour, no evident fresh food markets were seen. Save Market was the only observed market that served fresh food. This is a deficit because people in the community would need to travel further from BVHP to obtain fresh food, which can be an inconvenience. This can affect one’s ability to incorporate fresh foods in their diet, which can affect one’s health in negative ways.
B. Prevalence of Alcohol and Tobacco Product Outlets
From both walking tours, six alcohol outlets were observed within the twelve-block radius, which averages to one alcohol outlet per two blocks. These alcohol outlets include liquor store and “markets.” Some include Save Market, Kennedy Market, and Bayview Liquors. From the walking tour, a closer inspection was done in each alcohol outlet that was named “market.” Although Save Market sold fresh produce and other various grocery products, it also sold hard liquor which is easily seen because it was merchandised behind the checkout counter. Kennedy Market, although it had various products that ranged from clothing to processed grocery foods, also sold beers and hard liquor (JF, personal observation, 2016). Having a prevalence of alcohol and tobacco product outlets makes the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products, such as cigarettes and cigars, easily accessible; it becomes a deficit because of the disproportionate amount of alcohol and tobacco product outlets in comparison to fresh food markets, almost 6 to 1. This may lead individuals to make poor health decisions when it is easier to find a tall can of beer versus a gallon of milk ((HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016); JF, 2016).
C. Close Proximity of Neighborhoods to Industrial Facilities
Old and current industrial facilities were observed during both walking tours and the driving tour. These include old naval ports, running waste facilities, and construction sites. The inhalation of certain pollutants that come out of these facilities may be harmful to the overall health and well being of the community. Additionally, the congestion of traffic brought by large construction trucks made the air difficult to breathe during the driving tour on the northern border of BVHP, where there was a prevalence of industrial facilities (HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016). Further, the close proximity of a waste facility to Double Rock Projects, a housing development in BVHP, for example, can disproportionately affect people in that community in comparison to other neighborhoods in SF because of their close proximity to the facility and their exposure to such chemical releases from the facility.
CONTROVERSIAL
A. Behaviors
The block bounded within Oakdale Avenue and Palou Avenue on Third Street had a good concentration of people. The congregation of people within that block is an asset because it provides a space for community interaction. However, according to Dos, who works in BVHP’s College Track and is a resident of the community, the block is a section where there is drug activity. Further, remnants of alcoholic beverages were seen on the ground. This demonstrates that people are not utilizing spaces within the community, such as local bars where alcohol can be consumed in a safe space.
CRIME DATA
Crime data was collected using Crime Mapping starting from July 1, 2016 to September 30, 2016, a 92-day period. The address where the data was collected starts on 4301 3rd Street, San Francisco, CA 94124 and stretches for a quarter mile radius. This area was chosen because during both walking tours and the driving tour, high foot traffic was observed. The total number of crimes within the time period was 153. The top three crimes are disturbing peace with 38 reports, motor vehicle theft with 28 reports, and assault with 21 reports; while the bottom three crimes are drug/alcohol related with 6 reports, robbery with 4 reports, and sex crimes with 2 reports (Bureau of Land Management, 2016). Further, the top three crimes occurred during the week, but mostly on weekends, Saturday and Sunday.
MAJOR FINDINGS
BVHP is notorious for its high rates of respiratory disease, particularly asthma, with a rate of 88.5/10,000, the second highest compared to all SF neighborhoods, 0.04 away in being at top with the Tenderloin, and alarmingly exceeds the state average of 34.5/0,000 (HCI, 2016d).
BVHP is a predominantly colored, low-income, and low-educational attainment community. BVHP is a predominantly colored community where Asians, Hispanic/Latinos, and Black/African Americans makeup 94.39% of the population, compared to SF overall where 41.4% of the population is White (HCI 2016a; U.S. Census Bureau, 2014a). BVHP has a greater number of Black/African Americans and Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander peoples compared to SF overall. A third of the racial makeup in BVHP is Black/African American, which is much greater compared to SF overall with only 15%; while in CT 231.03, 50% of the racial makeup is Black/African American (HCI, 2016b; U.S. Census Bureau, 2014a). Further, in CT 231.03, 10.7% of the racial makeup is Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander, compared to 0.4% in SF overall.
BVHP had much lower income levels compared to SF overall. The per capita income in BVHP is $22,002, the lowest in all SF neighborhoods where the highest is $91,429 in Marina (HCI, 2016c). While in CT 231.03, 87.4% of residents make $49,999 or less, compared to SF overall where 64.6% of residents make $50,000 or more (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014b).
BVHP had a lower educational attainment compared to SF overall. In BVHP, 60% had an attained a high school education (or equivalent) or less, while 52.9% have attained a bachelor’s degree or higher in SF overall (SFDPH, 2012; U.S. Census Bureau, 2014c). Further, BVHP’s educational attainment closely reflects CT 231.03 where 54.1% have attained a high school education (or equivalent) or less.
The combination of the low socioeconomic status and historical displacement exposed people of color to health hazards that are rooted in discrimination and negligence. BVHP is historically a neighborhood where people of color were displaced during gentrification of the 1950s through 1960s in SF. BVHP also experienced an industrial boom from WWI and WWII, which has left many facilities and outlets that have become a source of pollutants. The close proximity of neighborhoods to industrial facilities in BVHP were of concern. These include old naval ports, running waste facilities, and construction sites. The close proximity to these outlets, where toxins are released, may attribute to the high level of respiratory disease such as asthma, particularly amongst children. The inhalation of certain pollutants that come out of these facilities may be harmful to the overall health and well being of the people in the BVHP community, especially women who are pregnant. Further, according to the CDC (2016), air pollution has been implicated as one of the factors responsible for the increase in asthma incidence in most industrialized countries.
Stress and diet can also affect one’s asthma. Stress has been linked to asthma, and since many residents of BVHP experience income insecurity and overall low socioeconomic status, stress may be amplified among residents (Chen & Miller, 2016). Further, in a study by Wyatt et al. (2007), perceived and personally mediated racism act as stressors; thus, since BVHP is predominantly a community of color, members of the community might be experiencing greater levels of stress. In addition, one’s diet can also be of concern in relation to asthma due to the lack of access to fresh foods in the BVHP, where a poor diet can worsen one’s asthma (Kim, Ellwood, & Asher, 2009). BVHP also has a prevalence of alcohol and tobacco outlets, and alcohol consumption and tobacco use have been attributed to increasing mortality rates for people who have died from asthma (Levenson, Greenberg, Donoghue, & Lifschultz, 1996).
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to address asthma, recommendations must take into account indoor and outdoor air quality, health care systems and financing, nutrition, and socioeconomic mobility all of which are related to education and income. To address indoor and outdoor air quality, at a community level, workshops can be created in order to educate BVHP residents about air pollutants. Within an institutional level, companies must be held accountable for the adverse health effects and pollutant emissions in the neighborhood. Companies must be transparent to residents about potential harm that industrial companies, for example, may bring. At a policy level, zoning laws must be enforced to distance residential neighborhoods from industrial facilities that emit air pollutants. In addition, housing code ordinances and their enforcement must be mandated federally, especially for subsidized and public housing, since most low-income families lack housing options and are more vulnerable to poor air quality.
To address health care systems and financing, at a community level, self-management education and case management for persons with asthma must be provided, especially for those who do not have their asthma in control. Local schools in BVHP can be utilized as a starting point for implementing such practice, since the youth in BVHP disproportionately suffer from asthma. At an institutional level, a full range of medication options must be readily available in local pharmacies, which can include big retailers in BVHP, such as Walgreens. At a policy level, a continuous push for universal health care must be aimed in order to provide equal access to citizens regardless of socioeconomic status.
To address nutrition, at a community level, more community gardens in BVHP can be built and farmers market events can be held weekly, particularly within 3rd Street, a heavy foot traffic area during the day. At an institutional level, since residents of the community utilize convenience stores, a push for readily available fresh produce could increase consumption of fruits and vegetables. Further, nutrition classes could be offered starting from an elementary level in schools within BVHP.
Lastly, in order to address socioeconomic mobility in education and income at a community level, job fairs and resume workshops can be offered using the BVHP library; while institutions such as College Track in BVHP can be enlarged to help youth pursue a higher education. Within an institutional level, free college classes can be offered to low-income residents through BVHP’s City College location.
CONCLUSION
Ultimately, the high prevalence of asthma can be attributed to income inequality and racial disparities. These factors can lead to limited opportunities for socioeconomic mobility, differential access to goods and resources, and poor living conditions that can adversely affect one’s health outcome. It is important to note that BVHP has seen progress in the development of community organizations and institutions that help mobilize the members of the community. The community is capable of enacting great improvements, as seen in the prevalence of such organizations. Together, with proper information and outreach, the BVHP can develop greater changes as they continue to rise.
Roughly bounded within Evans Avenue to the north, the San Francisco Bay to the east, Paul Avenue to the south, and Rankin Street to the west, the Bayview-Hunters Point District (BVHP) is located in the southeastern section of San Francisco (SF) (San Francisco Planning Department [SF Planning Dept.], 2016a). BVHP’s zip code is 94124 and is part of District 10 under Supervisor Malia Cohen (SF Planning Dept., 2016a). Geographic landmarks of the district include Sam Jordan’s Bar, Quinn House and Sylvester House, which are some of the oldest houses in the district, Bayview Opera House, and Hunters Point Spring-Albion Brewery (SF Planning Dept., 2016b; U.S. Department of the Interior, 2016).
HISTORY
Before the 1700s, the Ohlone people, a Native American tribe of northern California, settled BVHP (Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of San Francisco, 2015). Upon the arrival of Spanish missionaries, Franciscan monks used BVHP for cattle ranching (O’brien, 2005). Jose Cornelio Bernal sold BVHP in 1849 and then commissioned brothers John, Philip, and Robert Hunter to develop the real estate; they in turn gave the area the name Hunters Point. In the 1860s, BVHP started to become an integral part of the U.S. military and cattle industry; the first permanent dry dock on the Pacific Ocean was built on BVHP’s bordering bay in 1867, and SF butchers established Butchertown on BVHP’s marshland in 1868 (Dillon, 2011). BVHP also became part of the shrimp fishing industry, established by the Chinese community in the 1880s (Roscoe, 1995). However, the industrial sector dominated the area throughout World War I and World War II when the U.S. Navy purchased property in BVHP to develop the SF Naval Shipyard (Dillon, 2011). The shipbuilding industry drew an influx of African Americans during the Great Migration and urban renewal displacement in SF (Roscoe, 1995). The Navy closed the shipyard and naval base in 1994, which stimulated efforts to improve conditions by the industrial sector. The negative consequences of projects ranging from coal and oil-fired power plants to a naval radiology lab are still felt in the BVHP community today. (Dillon, 2011).
DEMOGRAPHICS
According to Healthy Communities Institute (HCI) (2016a), in 2016, BVHP had a population that consisted of 33% Asian/Pacific Islander, 28.66% Hispanic/Latino, 27% Black/African American, 13.12% white, and 5.73% multi-ethnic. The median income from 2010-2014 was $22,002, much lower compared to state and national level, while 23.5% of BVHP were living among the poverty level (HCI, 2016b; HCI, 2016c). The San Francisco Department of Public Health (SFDPH) (2012) reports that in terms of education attainment, 36% had less than high school, 24% had high school or equivalent, and 40% had continued onto higher education. Furthermore, in terms of health insurance, 29% had private, 26% had Medicare, and 36% had Medi-Cal.
HEALTH
Diabetes, heart disease and stroke, and respiratory disease are among the predominant public health issues faced by BVHP residents. From 2012-2014, the rate of diabetes was 42.9/10,000—the highest rate compared to all SF neighborhoods and exceeding the state average of 25.8/10,000; the rate of heart disease/stroke was 21.6/10,000, the highest rate in comparison to all other SF neighborhoods and exceeding the state average of 8.6/10,000; the rate of respiratory disease was 88.5/10,000, the second highest rate compared to all SF neighborhoods, only 0.4% lower than the Tenderloin, and alarmingly exceeding the state average of 34.5/10,000 (HCI, 2016d).
U.S. CENSUS BUREAU DATA
The census tracts (CT) in BVHP are 980900, 061200, 023103, 023400, 023300, 023200, 023102, 980600, 061000 (San Francisco Planning Department [SF Planning Dept.], 2016a). CT 231.03, 234.00, and 232.00 were selected in the first analysis because they all fall within both the Bayview and the Hunters Point designation by the SF Planning Department. Ultimately, CT 231.03 was chosen because it was the median of the three CTs in terms of the number of total households. It disproportionately had the lowest levels of household income, having four times more households earning < $10,000 compared to CT 234 and three times more households earning < $10,000 compared to CT 232 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014d).
A. Race/Ethnicity
The majority of the ethnicity makeup of CT 231.03 is Black/African American, accounting for 50.6% of its population, twenty times greater compared to SF with only 5.5%. Further, in CT 231.03, Native Hawaiians and
other Pacific Islander peoples, Hispanic/Latinos, and people with two or more races account for more of the population compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islander peoples account for 10.7% of the population, almost ten times more compared to SF with only 0.4%; Hispanic/Latinos account for 21.4% of the population, almost double compared to SF with 15.3%; and people with two or more races account for 8.4%, twice as high compared to SF with 3.4%. Whites and Asians account for less of the population in CT 231.03 compared to SF as a whole. In SF, Whites account for 41.4% of the population, almost six times more compared to CT 231.03 with 7.4%; while Asians account for 33.3% of the population of SF, more than eleven times more compared to CT 231.03 with 3.1%.
B. Education Attainment
Educational attainment was much lower in CT 231.03 compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, 54.1% have attained a high school education (or equivalent) or less; while in SF, 52.9% have attained a bachelor’s degree or higher. The level of those whose highest education attainment was less than a9th grade education in CT 231.03 is 14.3%, measured against SF with 8.2%. The level of those whose highest education attainment was 9th to 12th grade, with no diploma, is 11.7% in BVHP, more than double compared to SF with 5.1%. The highest overall education attainment in CT 231.03 was a high school education (or equivalent) with 28.1%, close to a third. In SF, in contrast, the top educational attainment was a bachelor’s degree with 32.2%, more than double in comparison to CT 231.03 with only 14.5%. Further, in SF, 20.7% have attained a graduate or professional degree, nine times greater compared to CT 231.03 with 2.3%.
C. Household Income Levels
The household income levels are much lower in CT: 231.03 compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, less than 13% of households make $50,000 or more; while in SF, more that 60% of households make $50,000 or more. In SF, the income of $200,000 or more accounts for the highest percentage of households, while in CT 231.03 no household has an income of $200,000 or more. Almost a fourth of households in CT 231.03 make < $10,000 in income with 24.8%, compared to SF where only 6.5% make < $10,000, which is almost four times lower compared to CT 231.03. CT 231.03 also has twice as many households that make an income of $10,000 to $14,999 with 13.1%, compared to SF with 6.1%. Further, there are almost three times as many households that make an income of $15,000 to $24,000 in CT 231.03 with 22.7%, compared to SF with 7.8%.
D. Population by Age
CT 231.03 has a greater number of young people compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, 15.4% of the population is 14 years old or younger, almost a third greater than SF at 11.3%. The age distribution of CT 231.03 from 15 years old or older closely resemble SF overall. However, members of the population who are 35-39 years old in CT 231.03 account for 4.4%, almost twice as high compared to SF with 8.5%.
E. Employment Status
The unemployment rates in BVHP are much higher compared to SF overall. In CT 231.03, 24.9% are unemployed, almost five times greater compared to SF with only 5.3%. Further, the rates of employment status are much lower in CT 231.03 with 34%, almost two times greater compared to SF with 64%.
OBSERVATIONAL DATA
Halima Dos, Jose Francisco, Lorena Gonzalez, and Stephanie Vargas conducted an observational tour of BVHP on Wednesday, October 27, 2016 under the instruction of Professor Ruby Turalba, MPH of the Health Education Department at San Francisco State University. The walking and driving tour both occurred in the afternoon from around 2:00 PM to 4:00 PM, lasting almost two hours. The first hour of the tour was dedicated to the driving portion. The following streets were visited: from Evans Avenue and Third Street, the northern boundary of BVHP, to Paul Avenue and Third Street, the southern boundary of BVHP; Gilman Avenue, Crisp Road, and Hussey Street, which are in close proximity to the bordering San Francisco Bay, the eastern boundary of BVHP, and Oakdale Avenue and Rankin Street—the northern boundary of BVHP. The second hour of the tour was dedicated to the walking portion starting from Evans Avenue and Third Street to Palou Avenue and Third Street, which spanned twelve blocks. Francisco conducted an additional individual walking tour on Wednesday, November 16, 2016. The individual walking tour occurred in the afternoon from around 4:30 PM to 5:30 PM, lasting almost an hour. The same twelve blocks of Evans Avenue and Third Street to Palou Avenue and Third Street were visited to expand on observations from the first walking tour.
ASSETS
A. Community Organizations
There is an abundance of community organizations in BVHP that include College Track, Salvation Army, Bayview Hunters Point Youth, Southeast Sector Community Development Corporation, Offices for Justice, Positive Directions Equal, Project Bayview, and Meals on Wheels (HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016). During the walking tour, it was observed that there was at least one organization per block in the twelve blocks on Third Street that were surveyed. From helping high school students graduate and bridge them to four-year universities at College Track, to helping people receive access to legal help at Offices for Justice and Salvation Army, the community organizations in BVHP are assets because they assist individuals within the community receive access to resources they might not otherwise receive.
B. Community Spaces
Public spaces such as parks and libraries offer people in BVHP access to locations where they can safely gather and receive further resources. Community areas in BVHP include the Youngblood-Coleman Playground and Bayview Linda Brooks-Burton Branch Library where residents can receive not only resources such as books and computers, but also hold events for organizations such as the Latino Parent Club and other multicultural programs for young people. Additionally, the Joseph Lee Recreation Center provides a place where people in the community can find a wide selection of games, sports, programs, and classes. Furthermore, the Bayview Opera House hosts community events such as dances and meetings. Lastly, the Clean Lounge is a space where people in the community hold health and non-alcoholic events (Bayview Operahouse, 2016; (HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016; San Francisco Public Library, 2016; SF Rec & Park, 2016). These spaces help create and strengthen the BVHP community.
C. Public Transportation
MUNI lines in BVHP include the T-line train, 29-Sunset bus, 44-O’Shaughnessy bus, and 24-Divisadero bus (JF, personal observation, 2016). A fourth of CT 231.03 utilizes public transportation to commute to work; these MUNI lines are significant for the mobility of the labor force within the community (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014d). From the walking tour, it was observed that a lot of elementary students, high school students, and senior citizens also utilize public transportation. Additionally, it makes it easy for people outside of the community to travel to and from BVHP, with the T-line train coming at least every ten minutes, and the buses coming at least every ten to fifteen minutes (JF, personal observation, 2016). The MUNI buses and the MUNI train are also wheelchair accessible, and almost every stop on Third Street, where the T-line runs, has a platform where people who use wheelchairs can easily get on and off.
DEFICITS
A. Lack of Fresh Food Markets
During both walking tours, there was only one fresh food market in the twelve-block stretch that was noticed; during the driving tour, no evident fresh food markets were seen. Save Market was the only observed market that served fresh food. This is a deficit because people in the community would need to travel further from BVHP to obtain fresh food, which can be an inconvenience. This can affect one’s ability to incorporate fresh foods in their diet, which can affect one’s health in negative ways.
B. Prevalence of Alcohol and Tobacco Product Outlets
From both walking tours, six alcohol outlets were observed within the twelve-block radius, which averages to one alcohol outlet per two blocks. These alcohol outlets include liquor store and “markets.” Some include Save Market, Kennedy Market, and Bayview Liquors. From the walking tour, a closer inspection was done in each alcohol outlet that was named “market.” Although Save Market sold fresh produce and other various grocery products, it also sold hard liquor which is easily seen because it was merchandised behind the checkout counter. Kennedy Market, although it had various products that ranged from clothing to processed grocery foods, also sold beers and hard liquor (JF, personal observation, 2016). Having a prevalence of alcohol and tobacco product outlets makes the purchase of alcohol and tobacco products, such as cigarettes and cigars, easily accessible; it becomes a deficit because of the disproportionate amount of alcohol and tobacco product outlets in comparison to fresh food markets, almost 6 to 1. This may lead individuals to make poor health decisions when it is easier to find a tall can of beer versus a gallon of milk ((HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016); JF, 2016).
C. Close Proximity of Neighborhoods to Industrial Facilities
Old and current industrial facilities were observed during both walking tours and the driving tour. These include old naval ports, running waste facilities, and construction sites. The inhalation of certain pollutants that come out of these facilities may be harmful to the overall health and well being of the community. Additionally, the congestion of traffic brought by large construction trucks made the air difficult to breathe during the driving tour on the northern border of BVHP, where there was a prevalence of industrial facilities (HD, JF, LG, & SV, personal observation, 2016). Further, the close proximity of a waste facility to Double Rock Projects, a housing development in BVHP, for example, can disproportionately affect people in that community in comparison to other neighborhoods in SF because of their close proximity to the facility and their exposure to such chemical releases from the facility.
CONTROVERSIAL
A. Behaviors
The block bounded within Oakdale Avenue and Palou Avenue on Third Street had a good concentration of people. The congregation of people within that block is an asset because it provides a space for community interaction. However, according to Dos, who works in BVHP’s College Track and is a resident of the community, the block is a section where there is drug activity. Further, remnants of alcoholic beverages were seen on the ground. This demonstrates that people are not utilizing spaces within the community, such as local bars where alcohol can be consumed in a safe space.
CRIME DATA
Crime data was collected using Crime Mapping starting from July 1, 2016 to September 30, 2016, a 92-day period. The address where the data was collected starts on 4301 3rd Street, San Francisco, CA 94124 and stretches for a quarter mile radius. This area was chosen because during both walking tours and the driving tour, high foot traffic was observed. The total number of crimes within the time period was 153. The top three crimes are disturbing peace with 38 reports, motor vehicle theft with 28 reports, and assault with 21 reports; while the bottom three crimes are drug/alcohol related with 6 reports, robbery with 4 reports, and sex crimes with 2 reports (Bureau of Land Management, 2016). Further, the top three crimes occurred during the week, but mostly on weekends, Saturday and Sunday.
MAJOR FINDINGS
BVHP is notorious for its high rates of respiratory disease, particularly asthma, with a rate of 88.5/10,000, the second highest compared to all SF neighborhoods, 0.04 away in being at top with the Tenderloin, and alarmingly exceeds the state average of 34.5/0,000 (HCI, 2016d).
BVHP is a predominantly colored, low-income, and low-educational attainment community. BVHP is a predominantly colored community where Asians, Hispanic/Latinos, and Black/African Americans makeup 94.39% of the population, compared to SF overall where 41.4% of the population is White (HCI 2016a; U.S. Census Bureau, 2014a). BVHP has a greater number of Black/African Americans and Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander peoples compared to SF overall. A third of the racial makeup in BVHP is Black/African American, which is much greater compared to SF overall with only 15%; while in CT 231.03, 50% of the racial makeup is Black/African American (HCI, 2016b; U.S. Census Bureau, 2014a). Further, in CT 231.03, 10.7% of the racial makeup is Native Hawaiian/other Pacific Islander, compared to 0.4% in SF overall.
BVHP had much lower income levels compared to SF overall. The per capita income in BVHP is $22,002, the lowest in all SF neighborhoods where the highest is $91,429 in Marina (HCI, 2016c). While in CT 231.03, 87.4% of residents make $49,999 or less, compared to SF overall where 64.6% of residents make $50,000 or more (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014b).
BVHP had a lower educational attainment compared to SF overall. In BVHP, 60% had an attained a high school education (or equivalent) or less, while 52.9% have attained a bachelor’s degree or higher in SF overall (SFDPH, 2012; U.S. Census Bureau, 2014c). Further, BVHP’s educational attainment closely reflects CT 231.03 where 54.1% have attained a high school education (or equivalent) or less.
The combination of the low socioeconomic status and historical displacement exposed people of color to health hazards that are rooted in discrimination and negligence. BVHP is historically a neighborhood where people of color were displaced during gentrification of the 1950s through 1960s in SF. BVHP also experienced an industrial boom from WWI and WWII, which has left many facilities and outlets that have become a source of pollutants. The close proximity of neighborhoods to industrial facilities in BVHP were of concern. These include old naval ports, running waste facilities, and construction sites. The close proximity to these outlets, where toxins are released, may attribute to the high level of respiratory disease such as asthma, particularly amongst children. The inhalation of certain pollutants that come out of these facilities may be harmful to the overall health and well being of the people in the BVHP community, especially women who are pregnant. Further, according to the CDC (2016), air pollution has been implicated as one of the factors responsible for the increase in asthma incidence in most industrialized countries.
Stress and diet can also affect one’s asthma. Stress has been linked to asthma, and since many residents of BVHP experience income insecurity and overall low socioeconomic status, stress may be amplified among residents (Chen & Miller, 2016). Further, in a study by Wyatt et al. (2007), perceived and personally mediated racism act as stressors; thus, since BVHP is predominantly a community of color, members of the community might be experiencing greater levels of stress. In addition, one’s diet can also be of concern in relation to asthma due to the lack of access to fresh foods in the BVHP, where a poor diet can worsen one’s asthma (Kim, Ellwood, & Asher, 2009). BVHP also has a prevalence of alcohol and tobacco outlets, and alcohol consumption and tobacco use have been attributed to increasing mortality rates for people who have died from asthma (Levenson, Greenberg, Donoghue, & Lifschultz, 1996).
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to address asthma, recommendations must take into account indoor and outdoor air quality, health care systems and financing, nutrition, and socioeconomic mobility all of which are related to education and income. To address indoor and outdoor air quality, at a community level, workshops can be created in order to educate BVHP residents about air pollutants. Within an institutional level, companies must be held accountable for the adverse health effects and pollutant emissions in the neighborhood. Companies must be transparent to residents about potential harm that industrial companies, for example, may bring. At a policy level, zoning laws must be enforced to distance residential neighborhoods from industrial facilities that emit air pollutants. In addition, housing code ordinances and their enforcement must be mandated federally, especially for subsidized and public housing, since most low-income families lack housing options and are more vulnerable to poor air quality.
To address health care systems and financing, at a community level, self-management education and case management for persons with asthma must be provided, especially for those who do not have their asthma in control. Local schools in BVHP can be utilized as a starting point for implementing such practice, since the youth in BVHP disproportionately suffer from asthma. At an institutional level, a full range of medication options must be readily available in local pharmacies, which can include big retailers in BVHP, such as Walgreens. At a policy level, a continuous push for universal health care must be aimed in order to provide equal access to citizens regardless of socioeconomic status.
To address nutrition, at a community level, more community gardens in BVHP can be built and farmers market events can be held weekly, particularly within 3rd Street, a heavy foot traffic area during the day. At an institutional level, since residents of the community utilize convenience stores, a push for readily available fresh produce could increase consumption of fruits and vegetables. Further, nutrition classes could be offered starting from an elementary level in schools within BVHP.
Lastly, in order to address socioeconomic mobility in education and income at a community level, job fairs and resume workshops can be offered using the BVHP library; while institutions such as College Track in BVHP can be enlarged to help youth pursue a higher education. Within an institutional level, free college classes can be offered to low-income residents through BVHP’s City College location.
CONCLUSION
Ultimately, the high prevalence of asthma can be attributed to income inequality and racial disparities. These factors can lead to limited opportunities for socioeconomic mobility, differential access to goods and resources, and poor living conditions that can adversely affect one’s health outcome. It is important to note that BVHP has seen progress in the development of community organizations and institutions that help mobilize the members of the community. The community is capable of enacting great improvements, as seen in the prevalence of such organizations. Together, with proper information and outreach, the BVHP can develop greater changes as they continue to rise.
Works Cited:
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Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). ATSDR case studies in environmental triggers of asthma. Retrieved at: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/asthma/docs/asthma.pdf
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Levenson, T., Greenberger, P., Donoghue, E., & Lifschultz, B. (1996). “Asthma deaths confounded by substance abuse: an assessment of fatal asthma.” CHEST, 100(3). Retrieved at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012369216410585
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Wyatt, S., et al. (2003). “Racism and cardiovascular disease in African Americans.” Retrieved at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2077080/
Bayview Operahouse. (2016). Complete calendar. Retrieved at: http://www.bvoh.org/events/
Bureau of Land Management. (2016). Crime Mapping: 4301 3rd St, San Francisco, CA 94124. Retrieved from: http://www.crimemapping.com/map/location/4705%203rd%20St,%20San%20Francisco,%20Calif
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). ATSDR case studies in environmental triggers of asthma. Retrieved at: https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/asthma/docs/asthma.pdf
Chen, E. and Miller, G. (2007). “Stress and inflammation in exacerbations of asthma.” Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 21(8). Retrieved at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2077080/
Google. (2016.) Google Maps. Retrieved at: https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?mid=1Q9WN1SK9AfWDqy-BvN8-i-u-SNI&ll=37.73441895707779%2C-122.3911249750571&z=14
Dillon, Lindsey. (2011). “Redevelopment and the politics of place in Bayview-Hunters Point. Retrived at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/9s15b9r2;jsessionid=222A61AFAF70681B45B02DF80BA01EB9#page-16
Healthy Communities Institute (HCI). (2016a). “Demographics.” Retrieved at: http://www.sfhip.org/index.php?module=DemographicData&type=user&func=ddview&varset=1&ve=text&pct=2&levels=1&localeId=131328
Healthy Communities Institute (HCI). (2016b). “Social environment / demographics.” Retrieved at: http://www.sfhip.org/index.php?module=indicators&controller=index&action=indicatorsearch&doSearch=1&l=275_131328&t%5B%5D=108&primaryTopicOnly=&showOnlySelectedComparisons=&subgrouping=1&card=0&handpicked=0&resultsPerPage=50&showComparisons=1&showOnlySelectedComparisons=&grouping=1&ordering=1
Healthy Communities Institute (HCI). (2016c). “Economy / Income.” Retrieved at: http://www.sfhip.org/index.php?module=indicators&controller=index&action=indicatorsearch&doSearch=1&l=275_131328&t%5B%5D=38&primaryTopicOnly=&showOnlySelectedComparisons=&subgrouping=1&card=0&handpicked=0&resultsPerPage=50&showComparisons=1&showOnlySelectedComparisons=&grouping=1&ordering=1
Healthy Communities Institute (HCI). (2016d). “Disparities dashboard.” Retrieved at: http://www.sfhip.org/index.php?module=indicators&controller=index&action=dashboard&alias=disparities
Kim, J., Ellwood, P., & Asher, M. (2009). “Diet and asthma: looking back, moving forward.” Respiratory Research, 10(49). Retrieved at: http://respiratory-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1465-9921-10-49
Levenson, T., Greenberger, P., Donoghue, E., & Lifschultz, B. (1996). “Asthma deaths confounded by substance abuse: an assessment of fatal asthma.” CHEST, 100(3). Retrieved at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012369216410585
Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of San Francisco. (2015). “Muwekma Ohlone tribe.” Retrieved at: http://www.muwekma.org/
O’Brien, Tricia. (2005). “San Francisco’s Bayview Hunters Point.” Mount Pleasant, SC: Arcadia Publishing.
Roscoe, William. (1995). “Brief history of Bayview-Hunters Point.” Retrieved at: http://www.foundsf.org/index.php?title=Brief_History_of_Bayview-Hunters_Point
San Francisco Department of Public Health (SFDPH). (2012).“Your Neighborhood at a Glance: Bayview-Hunters Point and Visitacion Valley.” Retrieved at: file:///home/chronos/u-25c289e70cda04713cf174b50902d18ebb67e90f/Downloads/HCSMP_DataHandout_ENG_03222012.pdf
San Francisco Planning Department (SF Planning Dept.). (2016a). “SF Find.” Retrieved at: http://propertymap.sfplanning.org/?name=sffind
San Francisco Planning Department (SF Planning Dept.). (2016b). “San Francisco Historic Landmarks Map.” Retrieved at: http://sf-planning.org/san-francisco-landmarks-map
San Francisco Public Library. (2016). Bayview/Linda Brooks-Burton. Retrieved at: http://sfpl.org/mobile.xhtml.php?pg=0100000401
SF Rec & Park. (2016). Joseph Lee Rec Center. Retrieved at: http://sfrecpark.org/destination/joseph-lee-rec-center/
U.S. Census Bureau. (2014a). ACS demographic and housing estimates. Retrieved at: http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_14_5YR_DP05&prodType=table
U.S. Census Bureau. (2014b). Age and sex. Retrieved at: http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_14_5YR_S0101&prodType=table
U.S. Census Bureau. (2014c). Educational attainment. Retrieved at: http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_14_5YR_S1501&prodType=table
U.S. Census Bureau. (2014d). Selected economic characteristics. Retrieved at: http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_14_5YR_DP03&prodType=table
U.S. Department of the Interior. (2016). “Preservation month feature: South San Francisco Opera House, San Francisco, California.” Retrieved at: https://www.nps.gov/nr/feature/presmonth/2011/South_San_Francisco_Opera_House.htm
World Heart Federation. (2016). Diet and cardiovascular disease. Retrieved at: http://www.world-heart-federation.org/cardiovascular-health/cardiovascular-disease-risk-factors/diet/
Wyatt, S., et al. (2003). “Racism and cardiovascular disease in African Americans.” Retrieved at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2077080/
Aureolus Stetzel
Jamaica in Perpetual Crisis
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Aureolus Stetzel is a junior at majoring in Apparel Design and Merchandising, and minoring in Drama with an emphasis on Costume Design. She is from Humboldt County, CA and transferred to SF State from Santa Monica College. One of the most significant purposes in her life and future career is to help the fashion industry evolve into a more sustainable socio-environmental network, to cease ravaging the planet and perpetuating sweatshop labor conditions. She tends to view most societal structures and norms skeptically, especially those inflicted on the world by Euro-American-centric governments. She feels strongly that we all possess the ability and responsibility to make positive changes in this world, and that is one of the biggest driving forces of her aspirations socially, professionally, and as a human being on planet Earth.
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR KATHLEEN DE GUZMAN:
Aurie’s essay was written as her final project for our Postcolonial Literature class. The assignment required both rigorous literary analysis and careful incorporation of secondary contextual materials. Aurie persuasively organizes her primary and secondary sources to insightfully criticize the ongoing devastation of capitalism in Jamaica. Alongside her nuanced and specific analyses, she also unleashes some downright beautiful prose in this essay. Ultimately, this essay showcases how analyzing a novel is a complex endeavor that invites students to grasp that the aesthetic and the social are always profoundly linked.
Aureolus Stetzel is a junior at majoring in Apparel Design and Merchandising, and minoring in Drama with an emphasis on Costume Design. She is from Humboldt County, CA and transferred to SF State from Santa Monica College. One of the most significant purposes in her life and future career is to help the fashion industry evolve into a more sustainable socio-environmental network, to cease ravaging the planet and perpetuating sweatshop labor conditions. She tends to view most societal structures and norms skeptically, especially those inflicted on the world by Euro-American-centric governments. She feels strongly that we all possess the ability and responsibility to make positive changes in this world, and that is one of the biggest driving forces of her aspirations socially, professionally, and as a human being on planet Earth.
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR KATHLEEN DE GUZMAN:
Aurie’s essay was written as her final project for our Postcolonial Literature class. The assignment required both rigorous literary analysis and careful incorporation of secondary contextual materials. Aurie persuasively organizes her primary and secondary sources to insightfully criticize the ongoing devastation of capitalism in Jamaica. Alongside her nuanced and specific analyses, she also unleashes some downright beautiful prose in this essay. Ultimately, this essay showcases how analyzing a novel is a complex endeavor that invites students to grasp that the aesthetic and the social are always profoundly linked.
It has been said that Jamaica is in a perpetual crisis due to the cultural, economic, and governmental structures, which cater to an elite few who profit from the suffering of the country’s poor. There has been a sense of helplessness for generations now, and that plight is demonstrated in countless different artistic and intellectual outlets of the Jamaican people, including books, music, art, and academia. I will analyze the novel No Telephone to Heaven, by Michelle Cliff, the reggae song How Do You Feel, by Anthony B. and the scholarly article States of Emergency: Reggae Representations of the Jamaican Nation State, by Nadi Edwards. These three works express the multifaceted struggles of Jamaica. This chronic state of crisis is due to the lasting effects of colonialism in the Caribbean, which was directly linked to the exploitative process of capitalism that still ravages Jamaica today.
In the first fifty pages of No Telephone to Heaven,the reader is plunged straight into the cruel reality of Jamaica during the second half of the 20th century where the majority of people saw no alternative but to turn to violence after years of starving and suffering under the oppressions and shortcomings of the lawmakers. The protagonist rides in the back of a truck filled with guns and quiet, anxious people, bumping up, down and around a mountain road, remembering significant people and events throughout her life that have led her to this ominous journey of rebellion (Cliff, 4). Though it is not articulated until the end of the book just what Clare Savage and the people in the back of the truck are embarking to do, one can deduce that their impending task is illegal, dangerous, and imperative to the progress of their cause.
While their situation may seem to reflect a sudden climax of desperation among the oppressed, it is important to consider, as Edwards quotes of Walter Benjamin, “the tradition of the oppressed teaches us that the ‘state of emergency’ in which we live is not the exception but the rule” (Edwards, 1). With this statement, we can relate to the context of Jamaica the past and current effects of capitalism on vulnerable countries, which are monetarily-poor areas which are rich with resources but lack the legislative and ‘strong-arm’ power to protect themselves from the advances of exploitative companies, who often harvest all there is for the lowest price and sell at the highest price, returning nothing to the area and the locals they have exploited. An example of the capitalistic exploitation of Jamaica is provided when Clare is asked whether she knows that “the underground aquifers are colored from the waste of the bauxite mines and aluminum refineries” (Cliff, 195). In the process of extracting resources from foreign lands and people, the responsible parties bolster their hold on the region by influencing lawmakers in order to protect their investments over the interests and wellbeing of the locals. Often times, if corporations cannot influence local legislature they strategize with violence to assert militaristic dominance over the local society.
Once laws that favor corporations are implemented, the economy and government become dependent on bribes and other unethical dealings. Often, when the exploiting companies leave, the society doesn’t have the economic strength to fall back on. This is similar to addicts who suddenly stop using drugs. Their metabolism and immune system are weakened to the point that they collapse into a state of pain and sickness, which leads to extreme vulnerability. Capitalism and drug addiction are synonymous in how eventually most of the the wealth is concentrated into the smallest top percent of the population until there is not enough to go around and the system suffers a massive collapse. An addict that gains a tolerance for a drug and takes more and more to keep on feeling its effects becomes excessively imbalanced until their system shuts down, almost always ending in death.
When there are not enough resources to sustain people, and their government is not able or willin to restructure, the population faces an ultimatum of taking what they need in order to survive, and this has led to a chaotic state in Jamaica.
In the first fifty pages of No Telephone to Heaven,the reader is plunged straight into the cruel reality of Jamaica during the second half of the 20th century where the majority of people saw no alternative but to turn to violence after years of starving and suffering under the oppressions and shortcomings of the lawmakers. The protagonist rides in the back of a truck filled with guns and quiet, anxious people, bumping up, down and around a mountain road, remembering significant people and events throughout her life that have led her to this ominous journey of rebellion (Cliff, 4). Though it is not articulated until the end of the book just what Clare Savage and the people in the back of the truck are embarking to do, one can deduce that their impending task is illegal, dangerous, and imperative to the progress of their cause.
While their situation may seem to reflect a sudden climax of desperation among the oppressed, it is important to consider, as Edwards quotes of Walter Benjamin, “the tradition of the oppressed teaches us that the ‘state of emergency’ in which we live is not the exception but the rule” (Edwards, 1). With this statement, we can relate to the context of Jamaica the past and current effects of capitalism on vulnerable countries, which are monetarily-poor areas which are rich with resources but lack the legislative and ‘strong-arm’ power to protect themselves from the advances of exploitative companies, who often harvest all there is for the lowest price and sell at the highest price, returning nothing to the area and the locals they have exploited. An example of the capitalistic exploitation of Jamaica is provided when Clare is asked whether she knows that “the underground aquifers are colored from the waste of the bauxite mines and aluminum refineries” (Cliff, 195). In the process of extracting resources from foreign lands and people, the responsible parties bolster their hold on the region by influencing lawmakers in order to protect their investments over the interests and wellbeing of the locals. Often times, if corporations cannot influence local legislature they strategize with violence to assert militaristic dominance over the local society.
Once laws that favor corporations are implemented, the economy and government become dependent on bribes and other unethical dealings. Often, when the exploiting companies leave, the society doesn’t have the economic strength to fall back on. This is similar to addicts who suddenly stop using drugs. Their metabolism and immune system are weakened to the point that they collapse into a state of pain and sickness, which leads to extreme vulnerability. Capitalism and drug addiction are synonymous in how eventually most of the the wealth is concentrated into the smallest top percent of the population until there is not enough to go around and the system suffers a massive collapse. An addict that gains a tolerance for a drug and takes more and more to keep on feeling its effects becomes excessively imbalanced until their system shuts down, almost always ending in death.
When there are not enough resources to sustain people, and their government is not able or willin to restructure, the population faces an ultimatum of taking what they need in order to survive, and this has led to a chaotic state in Jamaica.
Crime rate too high, and dem want it get low, but still dem pass di ghetto youths like dem dem no know. Why so much innocent blood a’flow? Thief come through ya window, gunman through ya door. Where is di bettah politician?”(Anthony B, verse 2).
In this verse, Anthony B describes how the crime rates continue to rise because those with the power to help pretend they have nothing to do with the suffering masses and pretend they have no way to help. He calls on the issue of innocent blood flowing as children, much like Christopher in No Telephone to Heaven, get involved with violence out of desperation and lack of options. Edwards says, “this transgressive critique of prevailing systems of power underpins the particular category of reggae music broadly defined as ‘roots and culture’, namely those songs which address social, cultural, political and historical issues” (Edwards, 2). Edwards goes on to state that reggae has its share of love songs, simplistic dance songs and songs made for popularity, but that it is crucial to consider even love songs in the context of a “[society] that posits human relationships in terms of domination and exploitation” because these terms of existence “posit a radical reshaping of human behavior” (Edwards, 2). In No Telephone to Heaven, the very stage of Clare’s life is set upon the foundation of elitist hierarchy and colonial ideals born of the suffocatingly-close era of slavery, which has preordained every one of her accomplishments to exist ‘gratefully’ in the shade of ‘the great British empire.’ This social air of black inferiority is conceived directly from the colonial system of capitalism, designed expressly to keep Caribbean people like Clare, in a ‘child’s corner’ of the unknowledgeable subject ever in need of mentoring.
The ideas set forth by the genre of reggae, and by rebellious acts like the movement Clare joins once she moves back to Jamaica, “challenge certain mainstream concepts propagated by postcolonial elites about the postcolonial nation state” (Edwards, 2). Clare’s journey—the “hero’s journey”—is about her learning that the society she was born into is corrupt. She learns that it is okay to challenge such a system, learning that to truly accomplish what the postcolonial society cannot. She must fight with her community for the justice and equality that capitalism has stolen away. One significant example of how Clare’s accomplishments are over shadowed by the colonial ideals of hierarchy is when she is applying to the University of London and the reason she is considered is not because they have asked about her academic accomplishments, but rather because she has money (Cliff, 117). When her professors and peers come to realize her competency, they do not accept that Clare, a Creole, could achieve so much, and credit her accomplishments to her having “escaped the brain damage common to creoles” (Cliff, 117).
Edwards states, “Reggae originated in the slums of Kingston and it is easy to correlate its origin with its unrelenting critique of the establishment” (Edwards, 7). By identifying where the origins and bulk of the reggae genre are located—places like Trenchtown and “the Dungle”—it can be argued that the reason for this tone of criticism is because the people who are credited with the creation of these critiques have lived life under the worst circumstances their unequal society has to offer. Ironically, these low circumstances are both the expectation and the product of the hierarchical colonials who take everything and give nothing back, turning a blind eye to the suffering they inflict, both directly and indirectly, and in turn blame the impoverished for their own circumstances when they ask for aid. It is noted by Edwards that, “shortly after Independence, Jamaica had the dubious distinction of having the world’s highest level of inequality, with the richest 5% of the population having 30% of the national income, and the poorest 20% receiving only 2%” (Edwards, 7). By the end of the work, Clare comes to the conclusion that to elevate oneself within this unequal system is to be a part of the problem, but to renounce the system is to be a part of a solution.
Anthony B sings “how do you feel, to see the sufferin’ in the streets? Kids goin’ to bed hungry, with no food to eat” in the chorus of How Do You Feel, calling again on the absentee government to help the people (Anthony B, chorus). “Many reggae songs celebrate the redemptive, healing and sustaining power of the music for those who must endure the perils of Babylonian exile” (Edwards, 9). These perspectives resonate in Clare as she decides to exit the structure of Jamaican society to join the organization introduced to her by Harriet that fights back against key figures of the corrupt establishment. She is further determined by the people she encounters on the way to her interview—children disfigured by polio due to the inaccessibility of vaccinations, people stealing an iguana from the zoo to eat, and all the people she remembers from childhood that found ways to struggle along and survive (Cliff, 184-188). The lyric “you cyaan treat di ghetto youth like a bet” relates directly to the book’s mention of how children are not given vaccines and their health is left to chance, which resulted in masses of children being permanently harmed and debilitated from polio (Anthony B, verse 3).
While the government in Jamaica has claimed to decrease the violence in the Suppression of Crimes Act and the Gun Court Act, both of 1974, by giving “immense powers to the police and judiciary”, this act actually increased the conflict “from the frontlines of an endless war between ghetto dwellers and the police who represent the state” (Edwards, pg. 9). With an increase in policing came further “[denial] of justice to the poor, and [subjection] to ‘sometimes bullets, sometimes baton blows’” (Edwards, 9). It has been argued that it is political and societal divisions that keep people apart and divided, which many reggae artists, political activists, and human rights activists have urged the masses to overcome if progress is to be made. Anthony B calls on another problem with the corrupt tactics of police/government brutality when he asks “how much more o’ mi black sista’ ya gone rape, and den you put up di yellow tape?” (Anthony B, verse 3). These are the struggles that the oppressed must endure under a government that was put in place by capitalist interests rather than societal interests.
Clare arrives at multiple points in the story when she wants to join social, political movements but people like her colonial-minded father block her path to what she knows deep down to be her calling in life: “to help her people” (Cliff, 196). Colonial mentality—esteeming monetary and social hierarchy above uniqueness and community strength—is the mortar of the divide that keeps people detached from each other, fighting amongst themselves and limited in their potential. It pulls focus from the problems that need to be solved by the people, for the people, and channels that energy into short-term outbursts of aggression and selfish, unsustainable goals involving money and control. By forfeiting ‘image’ and success on Eurocentric terms, Clare pulls that community-minded focus back to the fight that really matters to her, which is the betterment of her people, of the oppressed, exploited lower classes.
As Edwards goes on to point out, “Bob Marley’s ‘War’ is a messianic declaration of a universal state of emergency, a warning to those in power that until basic human rights are guaranteed to peoples, there will be the repeated catastrophe of war” (Edwards, 12). And until capitalism, the very fabric of colonialism, is no longer the backbone of the government, these conflicts, sufferings and cyclical uprisings will continue to occur. Only when the government is separate from capitalism, and the interests of the highest representative are the same as the working class will progress be made. This introduces the other factor of social success: protection of the lands and ‘resources’ that sustain the possibility of human society on Earth.
In order for the degradation of the environment, and thereafter the inhabitants, to stop, things like ‘mining and contaminating aquifers’ must become not only prohibited, but unthinkable.
The ideas set forth by the genre of reggae, and by rebellious acts like the movement Clare joins once she moves back to Jamaica, “challenge certain mainstream concepts propagated by postcolonial elites about the postcolonial nation state” (Edwards, 2). Clare’s journey—the “hero’s journey”—is about her learning that the society she was born into is corrupt. She learns that it is okay to challenge such a system, learning that to truly accomplish what the postcolonial society cannot. She must fight with her community for the justice and equality that capitalism has stolen away. One significant example of how Clare’s accomplishments are over shadowed by the colonial ideals of hierarchy is when she is applying to the University of London and the reason she is considered is not because they have asked about her academic accomplishments, but rather because she has money (Cliff, 117). When her professors and peers come to realize her competency, they do not accept that Clare, a Creole, could achieve so much, and credit her accomplishments to her having “escaped the brain damage common to creoles” (Cliff, 117).
Edwards states, “Reggae originated in the slums of Kingston and it is easy to correlate its origin with its unrelenting critique of the establishment” (Edwards, 7). By identifying where the origins and bulk of the reggae genre are located—places like Trenchtown and “the Dungle”—it can be argued that the reason for this tone of criticism is because the people who are credited with the creation of these critiques have lived life under the worst circumstances their unequal society has to offer. Ironically, these low circumstances are both the expectation and the product of the hierarchical colonials who take everything and give nothing back, turning a blind eye to the suffering they inflict, both directly and indirectly, and in turn blame the impoverished for their own circumstances when they ask for aid. It is noted by Edwards that, “shortly after Independence, Jamaica had the dubious distinction of having the world’s highest level of inequality, with the richest 5% of the population having 30% of the national income, and the poorest 20% receiving only 2%” (Edwards, 7). By the end of the work, Clare comes to the conclusion that to elevate oneself within this unequal system is to be a part of the problem, but to renounce the system is to be a part of a solution.
Anthony B sings “how do you feel, to see the sufferin’ in the streets? Kids goin’ to bed hungry, with no food to eat” in the chorus of How Do You Feel, calling again on the absentee government to help the people (Anthony B, chorus). “Many reggae songs celebrate the redemptive, healing and sustaining power of the music for those who must endure the perils of Babylonian exile” (Edwards, 9). These perspectives resonate in Clare as she decides to exit the structure of Jamaican society to join the organization introduced to her by Harriet that fights back against key figures of the corrupt establishment. She is further determined by the people she encounters on the way to her interview—children disfigured by polio due to the inaccessibility of vaccinations, people stealing an iguana from the zoo to eat, and all the people she remembers from childhood that found ways to struggle along and survive (Cliff, 184-188). The lyric “you cyaan treat di ghetto youth like a bet” relates directly to the book’s mention of how children are not given vaccines and their health is left to chance, which resulted in masses of children being permanently harmed and debilitated from polio (Anthony B, verse 3).
While the government in Jamaica has claimed to decrease the violence in the Suppression of Crimes Act and the Gun Court Act, both of 1974, by giving “immense powers to the police and judiciary”, this act actually increased the conflict “from the frontlines of an endless war between ghetto dwellers and the police who represent the state” (Edwards, pg. 9). With an increase in policing came further “[denial] of justice to the poor, and [subjection] to ‘sometimes bullets, sometimes baton blows’” (Edwards, 9). It has been argued that it is political and societal divisions that keep people apart and divided, which many reggae artists, political activists, and human rights activists have urged the masses to overcome if progress is to be made. Anthony B calls on another problem with the corrupt tactics of police/government brutality when he asks “how much more o’ mi black sista’ ya gone rape, and den you put up di yellow tape?” (Anthony B, verse 3). These are the struggles that the oppressed must endure under a government that was put in place by capitalist interests rather than societal interests.
Clare arrives at multiple points in the story when she wants to join social, political movements but people like her colonial-minded father block her path to what she knows deep down to be her calling in life: “to help her people” (Cliff, 196). Colonial mentality—esteeming monetary and social hierarchy above uniqueness and community strength—is the mortar of the divide that keeps people detached from each other, fighting amongst themselves and limited in their potential. It pulls focus from the problems that need to be solved by the people, for the people, and channels that energy into short-term outbursts of aggression and selfish, unsustainable goals involving money and control. By forfeiting ‘image’ and success on Eurocentric terms, Clare pulls that community-minded focus back to the fight that really matters to her, which is the betterment of her people, of the oppressed, exploited lower classes.
As Edwards goes on to point out, “Bob Marley’s ‘War’ is a messianic declaration of a universal state of emergency, a warning to those in power that until basic human rights are guaranteed to peoples, there will be the repeated catastrophe of war” (Edwards, 12). And until capitalism, the very fabric of colonialism, is no longer the backbone of the government, these conflicts, sufferings and cyclical uprisings will continue to occur. Only when the government is separate from capitalism, and the interests of the highest representative are the same as the working class will progress be made. This introduces the other factor of social success: protection of the lands and ‘resources’ that sustain the possibility of human society on Earth.
In order for the degradation of the environment, and thereafter the inhabitants, to stop, things like ‘mining and contaminating aquifers’ must become not only prohibited, but unthinkable.
Children drink from this water every day of their lives. Women wash in it. Men fish from it. Brew coffee. Clean Tripe. Immerse believers. The waste leaches into the land. And people for miles around are covered with a fine dust which invades them. Do you have any idea of the power of such things… for future generations… for the future of your homeland? Do you not realize that this is but one example of contamination from the outside? Do realize the contempt in which you are held? And that our leaders invite it? (Cliff, 195).
The key problem concerning capitalism and how it affects the environment is how, from a capitalist, colonial perspective, everything on and in the land is seen as a "resource" to profit from as long as extraction is possible. "The tendency of capital is to violate the natural conditions that ensure nature's vitality, undermining the base on which ecological and human sustainability depends" (John Bellamy Foster et al., 2010). These so-called resources are elements of the finite systems of earth that depend on the last and next in the cyclical chain of biodiversity that adheres the fabric of our world together. Once pieces of that fragile chain are taken out or weakened, the chain is weakened. Once the chain's links are weakened, it will begin to collapse. The process of this environmental chain being broken is what causes vulnerable communities, like many parts of Jamaica, to react biologically to their environmental scarcity and toxicity with sickness and death.
Jamaica has been—and still is—in a tense state of crisis, and the source of this crisis, just as with any other vulnerable, exploited regions, is capitalism, which was imported directly from Europe during the colonial period. While Jamaica has transitioned into a postcolonial period with its independence, the presence of capitalism in the structure of society, economics and government continues to make the challenge of societal evolution impossible. From this struggle comes enlightenment, creation and innovation, and when the capitalistic system finally meets its demise due to inevitable collapse, these progressions in cultural wisdom and community strength will become the foundation of an equal and sustainable society.
Jamaica has been—and still is—in a tense state of crisis, and the source of this crisis, just as with any other vulnerable, exploited regions, is capitalism, which was imported directly from Europe during the colonial period. While Jamaica has transitioned into a postcolonial period with its independence, the presence of capitalism in the structure of society, economics and government continues to make the challenge of societal evolution impossible. From this struggle comes enlightenment, creation and innovation, and when the capitalistic system finally meets its demise due to inevitable collapse, these progressions in cultural wisdom and community strength will become the foundation of an equal and sustainable society.
Aschroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back. 2nd ed. Routledge, 1989. Print.
Anthony B. How Do You Feel? Jamaica: No Doubt Records, 2005. Mp3 Triumphant.
Chomsky, Noam. Requiem for the American Dream. 1st ed. Seven Stories Press, 2017. Print.
Cliff, Michelle. No Telephone to Heaven. Jamaica: Dutton Adult, 1987. Print.
Columbia University. “Theory of Capitalism.” The Center on Capitalism and Society. N.p., n.d. Web.
Edwards, Nadi. “States of Emergency: Reggae Representations of the Jamaican Nation State.” Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies, University of the West Indies. 47.1 (1998): 21–32. Print.
Foster, John Bellamy, Brett Clark, and Richard York. The Ecological Rift: Capitalism’s War on the Earth. Monthly Review Press, 2010. Print.
Vidal, John. “Shell Oil Paid Nigerian Military to Put down Protests, Court Documents Show.” The Guardian 2 Oct. 2011. Web.
SENIORS
Kareena del Rosario
The Power of the Fabliaux
The Power of the Fabliaux
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Kareena recently graduated from San Francisco State University with a bachelor’s degree in psychology and a minor in French. Through her academic work, she became fascinated by the many societal factors that shape the ways in which we think and behave. This fascination was enriched by her French studies, which highlighted cultural and linguistic differences, and prompted her to study abroad to fully immerse herself in a culture other than her own. Kareena spent the year in the south of France where she solidified her adoration for the French language, culture, and history.
Currently, Kareena is pursuing her interests in psychology and working as a research associate at UC Berkeley and UCSF. She aspires to study the role of emotion and perception on social functioning, and plans to pursue a doctorate degree in Social Psychology.
“The Power of the Fabliaux” won the 2017 SF State CWEP Award for Student Writing in GWAR
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR BERENICE LE MARCHAND:
In French 400 GWAR culture class students engage actively in the study of diverse French cultural forms from the Middle Ages till early 20th century. In the first paper of the semester, students are asked to write a 5-6 page critical essay covering a topic from Middle Ages or Renaissance. Kareena wrote a superb essay on Fabliaux, a Medieval literary genre showcasing the French culture of the time.
Kareena cleverly selected one particular angle-- the religion-- to analyze those fabliaux to underline the rich and colorful insight of the French culture. Kareena astutely used specific fabliaux to highlight the power given to the peasants via this literary genre; in particular how those pieces mocked the Church whose institution, control and rigidity were quite unyielding and dogmatic at that time. “The Power of Fabliaux” is a perceptive and sharp essay!
Kareena recently graduated from San Francisco State University with a bachelor’s degree in psychology and a minor in French. Through her academic work, she became fascinated by the many societal factors that shape the ways in which we think and behave. This fascination was enriched by her French studies, which highlighted cultural and linguistic differences, and prompted her to study abroad to fully immerse herself in a culture other than her own. Kareena spent the year in the south of France where she solidified her adoration for the French language, culture, and history.
Currently, Kareena is pursuing her interests in psychology and working as a research associate at UC Berkeley and UCSF. She aspires to study the role of emotion and perception on social functioning, and plans to pursue a doctorate degree in Social Psychology.
“The Power of the Fabliaux” won the 2017 SF State CWEP Award for Student Writing in GWAR
COMMENT FROM PROFESSOR BERENICE LE MARCHAND:
In French 400 GWAR culture class students engage actively in the study of diverse French cultural forms from the Middle Ages till early 20th century. In the first paper of the semester, students are asked to write a 5-6 page critical essay covering a topic from Middle Ages or Renaissance. Kareena wrote a superb essay on Fabliaux, a Medieval literary genre showcasing the French culture of the time.
Kareena cleverly selected one particular angle-- the religion-- to analyze those fabliaux to underline the rich and colorful insight of the French culture. Kareena astutely used specific fabliaux to highlight the power given to the peasants via this literary genre; in particular how those pieces mocked the Church whose institution, control and rigidity were quite unyielding and dogmatic at that time. “The Power of Fabliaux” is a perceptive and sharp essay!
In Medieval France, the fabliaux were rich and comedic folklore that emerged out of the working class. The Middle Ages are often characterized by religious oppression and the feudal system, which categorized people according to a hierarchic scale. Therefore, the societal rigidity of this time severely limited the rights of the peasantry, leaving them seemingly powerless. The peasants, however, used the power of storytelling to convey the social reality of the time, offering insight into their relationship with the Church and other classes. These stories, or fabliaux, reflect the culture and values of the lower class, providing an alternate perspective on life at the time. In using this unique insight, the peasantry was able to generate their own literary vernacular as a means to open expression during a time where they were otherwise limited. This genre of literature speaks volumes about the ideas and beliefs of the peasants, and in many ways it functions as their voice amid societal and religious oppression. One of the reoccurring themes that surfaces in the fabliaux is the Church and their relationship with the peasantry. Although the Church preached about the importance of leading a virtuous life, many of its clergymen were corrupt, inflated with self-righteousness, and took full advantage of their superior ranking. Thus, the fabliaux functioned as a source of power for the peasants, which allowed them to speak out against the Church by mocking the promiscuity and grandiosity exhibited by priests, and using symbolism to shame their transgressions.
The theme of promiscuity among priests is recognized as one of the aspects of corruption in the Medieval Church and is commonly depicted in the fabliaux. In some of these folklores, the priests’ actions alone allude to the immorality in the Church. For instance, “Les Perdrix” plays with the idea of promiscuity in the Church as the woman convinces the priest that her husband was violently jealous, leading the priest “sans s'attarder, s'enfuit le plus vite qu'il peut” (Baugnon). His instant reaction implies his understanding of the husband’s jealousy and also suggests culpability on his part, insinuating the immorality of clergymen at the time. Alternative depictions of this aspect of the Church are increasingly explicit, further illustrating their corruption plainly. In “Le Dit dou Soucretain,” the “lecherous priest… offers to divest himself of his possessions in return for sexual favors” (Bloch 36). The directness of the priest’s offer exposes the lack of shame surrounding his corruption. In using the fabliaux as a means to divulge the hypocrisy of the Church, the peasantry further tarnishes its image in enforcing this scandalous depiction of the clergymen. In fact, Nykrog notes that in stories where adultery takes place, “the lover is always a priest” (qtd. in Bloch 63). The frequency of priests being cast into the role of a lover reflects their reputation of being lustful. The perception that the peasantry had of the clergy is indubitably reflected in the typical role of a lover for the priests in the fabliaux.
In addition to promiscuity, the corruption of the Church is also portrayed in the pomposity of the priests. The attitudes of grandiosity manifest themselves in various ways, yet are rooted in a mentality of absolute authority. The priest in “Brunain la vache du prêtre” uses his high-ranking position to manipulate others and benefit his greed and self-righteousness. He “reminds his congregation that ‘It is good to give, for God who understands reason renders double to those who give willingly’” (qtd. in Broche 76). Although his sermon was rooted in virtuous concepts, his intentions are elsewhere. In hiding his true motives behind the concept of generosity for God, he tailors his sermon for his own benefit, as he was “toujours d’humeur à prendre” (Baugnon). The sentiments of self-importance fueled his greed, leading him to manipulate others for his own profit. The moral of the fabliau stresses the corruptness of the priest “qui le cache et enfouit” (Baugnon). Therefore, the fabliau uses the example of the priest as a warning and demonstrates that his pretension and manipulation of the situation led him to failure. The grandiosity of the clergy is also illustrated in the fabliau “Estula.” A boy, amazed by what he just witnessed, asks the priest to come see. The priest refuses since he does not have shoes on, yet when the boy suggests carrying him, he “sans plus discuter, monte sur les épaules du jeune homme, qui se remet en route” (Baugnon, lines 66-67). Rather than putting on his shoes, the priest is carried down to the house on the boy’s shoulder, symbolizing the mentality and hierarchy of the Church. His physical placement on top of the boy represents the power that the Church exercised over the people. He repeatedly refused to put on his shoes and showed no leniency in his decision until the boy offered to carry him on his shoulders. If the priest were to agree to put on his shoes and accompany the boy on foot, it would require him to walk alongside the boy in an equal manner. Ergo, the priest agrees to be carried so to remind the boy that they he is above him on the hierarchic scale of society and to satisfy his sentiments of grandiosity. Overall, the attitudes of the Church were personified in the priests of the fabliaux, implying the corruption, immorality, and pretention that figures in the Church were known for.
The corruption of the clergy, though exhibited through acts of promiscuity and grandiosity, was additionally identified as transgression and penalized in numerous fabliaux. The peasantry utilized the fabliaux, not only as a means to bring this corruption to light, but also as a way to highlight it as immoral and sin. The following fabliaux call attention to the wrongdoings of the clergymen through the symbolism of the body. To start, in the tale “Du Prestre qu’on porte,” various characters encounter a dead body, and with each one believing that he is responsible, they dispose of the body where another character stumbles upon it and continues this cycle. According to Bloch, “the body is a shifter. As it circulates it derives its significance from the subject with which in comes in contact, the subject who is obliged to invest it with meaning” (67-68). When the bishop encounters the body and mistakenly believes that he was responsible for the death, he “innocents himself by quietly burying it” (Broche 66). For the bishop, the body represents his transgressions, and his burial of it is his recognition of his deception. This fabliau identifies the bishop’s actions as sin “and if one is always already guilty before the circulating corpse, it is because one is obliged to invest it with a meaning” (69). Thus the corpse embodied the corruption of the Church and was quietly buried in the same way that much of the hypocrisy that came out of the Church was concealed or disguised as a more righteous motive. In some of the fabliaux, the clergymen are physically punished for their recognized transgressions, such as in Huth Merlin, where the priest “dies a multiple death: ‘Etranglé et vif et pendu’” (qtd. in Broche 68). Since the body itself can carry significance, the violence and thoroughness of the priest’s death is a reflection of the numerous wrongdoings committed by the Church. Similarly, the transgressions of the clergymen were also depicted in the form of dismemberment. In “Du Prestre crucifié” a priest involved in an adulterous relationship tries to flee when his lover’s husband returns home. He tries to hide amongst the husband’s sculptures, but when the husband goes to trim the excess material, he ends up castrating the priest. The moral of the story further penalizes him in saying that “this example shows us well that a priest should under no circumstances love another’s wife, nor come around her” (62). The moral of the fabliau shames the priest, by preaching correct conduct and morality as well as castrating him. Castration is not at all uncommon in the fabliaux, of which priests are frequently depicted as the victims. According to Broche, the fabliaux “attributes castration to sexual desire” and this “mutilation is the direct result of transgression and transgression the proper of the priest” (83). As a way of both signifying the wrongdoing of the priest and penalizing him, the priest would have his sexual organs severed. In doing so, the priest is identified as having transgressions tied to his sexual desire and therefore punished through dismemberment. Thus, the corruption of the Church is not only alluded to, but also plainly identified it as sin and punished.
The fabliaux, though comical and provocative, act as an important piece in medieval French literature. Although the peasantry was oppressed by the rigidity of social ranking due to the feudal system and absolute power of the Church, they found a means to express their ideas. Therefore, the fabliaux reflect life in the middle ages through the eyes of the commoner, which allows an alternate perspective of the time compared to other literary texts. The peasantry were able to openly express their ideas and beliefs through the medium of the fabliaux, offering insight into the corruption of the Church. Through accessing this literary voice amid religious oppression and hypocrisy, these folklore were used to speak out against the Church, shaming the immorality and pretension of the clergymen. Additionally, the fabliaux shamed the wrongdoings of the priests, which were illustrated through symbolism of the body and its dismemberment. The fabliaux ultimately empowered the peasants, allowing them to have a voice in literature. Thus, the fabliaux acted as the voice of the peasantry, giving them the power of expression and forging them a place in the literary world.
Works Cited:
Baugnon, Thomas. "Fabliaux." Fabliaux. Web. 29 Feb. 2016.
Bloch, R. Howard. The Scandal of the Fabliaux. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1986. Print.
The theme of promiscuity among priests is recognized as one of the aspects of corruption in the Medieval Church and is commonly depicted in the fabliaux. In some of these folklores, the priests’ actions alone allude to the immorality in the Church. For instance, “Les Perdrix” plays with the idea of promiscuity in the Church as the woman convinces the priest that her husband was violently jealous, leading the priest “sans s'attarder, s'enfuit le plus vite qu'il peut” (Baugnon). His instant reaction implies his understanding of the husband’s jealousy and also suggests culpability on his part, insinuating the immorality of clergymen at the time. Alternative depictions of this aspect of the Church are increasingly explicit, further illustrating their corruption plainly. In “Le Dit dou Soucretain,” the “lecherous priest… offers to divest himself of his possessions in return for sexual favors” (Bloch 36). The directness of the priest’s offer exposes the lack of shame surrounding his corruption. In using the fabliaux as a means to divulge the hypocrisy of the Church, the peasantry further tarnishes its image in enforcing this scandalous depiction of the clergymen. In fact, Nykrog notes that in stories where adultery takes place, “the lover is always a priest” (qtd. in Bloch 63). The frequency of priests being cast into the role of a lover reflects their reputation of being lustful. The perception that the peasantry had of the clergy is indubitably reflected in the typical role of a lover for the priests in the fabliaux.
In addition to promiscuity, the corruption of the Church is also portrayed in the pomposity of the priests. The attitudes of grandiosity manifest themselves in various ways, yet are rooted in a mentality of absolute authority. The priest in “Brunain la vache du prêtre” uses his high-ranking position to manipulate others and benefit his greed and self-righteousness. He “reminds his congregation that ‘It is good to give, for God who understands reason renders double to those who give willingly’” (qtd. in Broche 76). Although his sermon was rooted in virtuous concepts, his intentions are elsewhere. In hiding his true motives behind the concept of generosity for God, he tailors his sermon for his own benefit, as he was “toujours d’humeur à prendre” (Baugnon). The sentiments of self-importance fueled his greed, leading him to manipulate others for his own profit. The moral of the fabliau stresses the corruptness of the priest “qui le cache et enfouit” (Baugnon). Therefore, the fabliau uses the example of the priest as a warning and demonstrates that his pretension and manipulation of the situation led him to failure. The grandiosity of the clergy is also illustrated in the fabliau “Estula.” A boy, amazed by what he just witnessed, asks the priest to come see. The priest refuses since he does not have shoes on, yet when the boy suggests carrying him, he “sans plus discuter, monte sur les épaules du jeune homme, qui se remet en route” (Baugnon, lines 66-67). Rather than putting on his shoes, the priest is carried down to the house on the boy’s shoulder, symbolizing the mentality and hierarchy of the Church. His physical placement on top of the boy represents the power that the Church exercised over the people. He repeatedly refused to put on his shoes and showed no leniency in his decision until the boy offered to carry him on his shoulders. If the priest were to agree to put on his shoes and accompany the boy on foot, it would require him to walk alongside the boy in an equal manner. Ergo, the priest agrees to be carried so to remind the boy that they he is above him on the hierarchic scale of society and to satisfy his sentiments of grandiosity. Overall, the attitudes of the Church were personified in the priests of the fabliaux, implying the corruption, immorality, and pretention that figures in the Church were known for.
The corruption of the clergy, though exhibited through acts of promiscuity and grandiosity, was additionally identified as transgression and penalized in numerous fabliaux. The peasantry utilized the fabliaux, not only as a means to bring this corruption to light, but also as a way to highlight it as immoral and sin. The following fabliaux call attention to the wrongdoings of the clergymen through the symbolism of the body. To start, in the tale “Du Prestre qu’on porte,” various characters encounter a dead body, and with each one believing that he is responsible, they dispose of the body where another character stumbles upon it and continues this cycle. According to Bloch, “the body is a shifter. As it circulates it derives its significance from the subject with which in comes in contact, the subject who is obliged to invest it with meaning” (67-68). When the bishop encounters the body and mistakenly believes that he was responsible for the death, he “innocents himself by quietly burying it” (Broche 66). For the bishop, the body represents his transgressions, and his burial of it is his recognition of his deception. This fabliau identifies the bishop’s actions as sin “and if one is always already guilty before the circulating corpse, it is because one is obliged to invest it with a meaning” (69). Thus the corpse embodied the corruption of the Church and was quietly buried in the same way that much of the hypocrisy that came out of the Church was concealed or disguised as a more righteous motive. In some of the fabliaux, the clergymen are physically punished for their recognized transgressions, such as in Huth Merlin, where the priest “dies a multiple death: ‘Etranglé et vif et pendu’” (qtd. in Broche 68). Since the body itself can carry significance, the violence and thoroughness of the priest’s death is a reflection of the numerous wrongdoings committed by the Church. Similarly, the transgressions of the clergymen were also depicted in the form of dismemberment. In “Du Prestre crucifié” a priest involved in an adulterous relationship tries to flee when his lover’s husband returns home. He tries to hide amongst the husband’s sculptures, but when the husband goes to trim the excess material, he ends up castrating the priest. The moral of the story further penalizes him in saying that “this example shows us well that a priest should under no circumstances love another’s wife, nor come around her” (62). The moral of the fabliau shames the priest, by preaching correct conduct and morality as well as castrating him. Castration is not at all uncommon in the fabliaux, of which priests are frequently depicted as the victims. According to Broche, the fabliaux “attributes castration to sexual desire” and this “mutilation is the direct result of transgression and transgression the proper of the priest” (83). As a way of both signifying the wrongdoing of the priest and penalizing him, the priest would have his sexual organs severed. In doing so, the priest is identified as having transgressions tied to his sexual desire and therefore punished through dismemberment. Thus, the corruption of the Church is not only alluded to, but also plainly identified it as sin and punished.
The fabliaux, though comical and provocative, act as an important piece in medieval French literature. Although the peasantry was oppressed by the rigidity of social ranking due to the feudal system and absolute power of the Church, they found a means to express their ideas. Therefore, the fabliaux reflect life in the middle ages through the eyes of the commoner, which allows an alternate perspective of the time compared to other literary texts. The peasantry were able to openly express their ideas and beliefs through the medium of the fabliaux, offering insight into the corruption of the Church. Through accessing this literary voice amid religious oppression and hypocrisy, these folklore were used to speak out against the Church, shaming the immorality and pretension of the clergymen. Additionally, the fabliaux shamed the wrongdoings of the priests, which were illustrated through symbolism of the body and its dismemberment. The fabliaux ultimately empowered the peasants, allowing them to have a voice in literature. Thus, the fabliaux acted as the voice of the peasantry, giving them the power of expression and forging them a place in the literary world.
Works Cited:
Baugnon, Thomas. "Fabliaux." Fabliaux. Web. 29 Feb. 2016.
Bloch, R. Howard. The Scandal of the Fabliaux. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1986. Print.
David Hlusak
First Came the Sound
First Came the Sound
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
David is a double major in History and Classics, originally from Phoenix Arizona,now residing in California. He completed his associate's degree at Santa Rosa Junior College before transferring to SF State and to enter a graduate program after he earns his degree to become a professor of history. David’s interest in history began with his Grandfather’s exploits during the Second World War. His grandfather was present at the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of Coral Sea, and the Battle of Midway; and David began to research those events more deeply, finding they were inextricably linked to prior historical events. Studying World War II, David eventually traced a historical chain of events all the way back to antiquity. He is now immersed in studying how the Ancient Greeks influenced the Islamic Golden Age, and how this, in turn, inspired the Renaissance in Europe. David also studies Latin and Spanish, with aims to learn at least five languages.
PROMPT FROM PROFESSOR DAWN MABALON:
Write a research paper on topic of your choice related to Bay Area history.
David is a double major in History and Classics, originally from Phoenix Arizona,now residing in California. He completed his associate's degree at Santa Rosa Junior College before transferring to SF State and to enter a graduate program after he earns his degree to become a professor of history. David’s interest in history began with his Grandfather’s exploits during the Second World War. His grandfather was present at the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of Coral Sea, and the Battle of Midway; and David began to research those events more deeply, finding they were inextricably linked to prior historical events. Studying World War II, David eventually traced a historical chain of events all the way back to antiquity. He is now immersed in studying how the Ancient Greeks influenced the Islamic Golden Age, and how this, in turn, inspired the Renaissance in Europe. David also studies Latin and Spanish, with aims to learn at least five languages.
PROMPT FROM PROFESSOR DAWN MABALON:
Write a research paper on topic of your choice related to Bay Area history.
On the morning of July 19th, 1944, the front page of the San Francisco Chronicle reported that the clock of the Port Chicago Hotel abruptly ceased the night before and held “10:19” suspended in time (Anspacher, 1). Residents of the San Francisco Bay Area believed that they had witnessed a minor earthquake at that hour, something not uncommon for the region. But, for Port Chicago, “first came the sound and then, an instant later, the town rocked as if a titan had picked it up in a burst of fury and hurled it toward the sky… then came darkness and the sort of silence that accompanies oblivion.” (Ibid.). This was not an earthquake that had left every building warped beyond recognition. What had occurred on this mid-July evening would later be described as the worst home-front disaster of World War II (“50 Navy Negroes are Found Guilty in Mutiny Trial”). The incident led to the Nation’s largest mass court-martial and captured media attention that produced ramifications that distressed the US Naval administration (Allen, xiii). Needing to answer for a devastating and costly catastrophe, the Twelfth Naval District found itself in a quagmire. In an attempt to avoid disruptions of home-front war production, which was threatened by the disaster, the Navy scapegoated fifty African-American servicemen for misconduct. However, close media coverage of the ensuing court-martial fueled controversy over discrimination that forced the Navy to address desegregation in order to avert the very same risk of home-front disunity that it initially sought to prevent. Black media coverage from the Chicago Defender, in opposition to the San Francisco Chronicle’s status-quo reporting, was able to bring the underlying race issues to the surface.
By July of 1941, the war between the United States and Japan was drawing increasingly closer. The U.S. Navy realized that when war came, its West Coast ammunition shipping facilities would not be sufficient, so they began to look into constructing a new facility. The waterfront outside the town of Port Chicago was selected for the new site. The Port Chicago facility was built and located about fifteen miles east of Vallejo, California, where the San Joaquin River drains into the San Francisco Bay. The facility was completed by November 1942 and would operate as a segregated ammunition shipping dock. The black enlisted men stationed at Port Chicago were trained as seamen upon entering the Navy; however, these men only ever saw shore duty during their naval careers. They were assigned to work as stevedores, loading a range of explosives and ammunition onto cargo ships, a job that they had never been trained to do. Their commanding officers were all white men who had also not been trained for this task. They assured their enlisted men that the ammunition they loaded could not explode because they lacked the necessary detonators. However, on July 17th, 1944, it did.
The detonation was described as equivalent to five kilotons of TNT or, in other words, one-third the magnitude of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan in August 1945 (Allen, 64). The explosion completely destroyed the two cargo ships that were being loaded, as well as the entirety of the loading facility. Every building in the town of Port Chicago, located about two miles away, was reported damaged. 320 enlisted men were killed, 202 of which were black servicemen, constituting fifteen percent of all African-American deaths in the Second World War (Ibid.) An additional 390 military personnel and civilians were injured. After the explosion, the surviving enlisted men were employed for disaster relief and all were then sent to Mare Island to continue loading ammunitions. The men were without leave, still without proper training, and any grievances they had had were still not addressed. On August 9th, 10th, and 11th, a total of 328 enlisted men from three separate divisions refused to continue handling ammunition under the same conditions; but, making it known that they would follow all other orders they were given. The men were addressed by their admiral who told them that “mutinous conduct in time of war carries the death sentence” (Allen, 85). All but forty-four men eventually agreed to go back to work, although not without being given summary court-martials on charges of refusing to obey orders. The number of men not willing to load ammunition increased the following day, as an additional six men who had agreed to work failed to show up for their duty. This group of, now fifty, African-American servicemen were then held in a six-week trial and ultimately convicted on charges of conspiracy to mutiny.
Two decades after the incident, a general history was written on Port Chicago, as the topic had previously been referenced by other historians discussing the struggles for equality faced by African-Americans during the World War II era. After primary resources from the trial were publicly released, historians began to examine the case itself. Efforts were made to uncover the side of the story belonging to the men charged with mutiny and to raise awareness of the impact that the affair had on American history. The explosion at Port Chicago received substantial media coverage; however, the work stoppage at the Mare Island naval ammunition depot was given very little. Two newspapers, the San Francisco Chronicle and the Chicago Defender, emerged as leading media outlets following the Port Chicago affair. These papers covered the trial with variability in their approach, and racial biases between the Chronicle and the Defender can be determined to having effects upon the opinions of their intended audiences. After the court-martial’s verdict, efforts would be made to appeal the decision and this pressure would help make an impact on the outcome on racial segregation in the Navy, as well as the Armed Forces.
Robert E. Pearson was the first person to take on a history of the Port Chicago incident at length. Though his book is no longer in print, Pearson’s No Share of Glory was published in 1964 and states that he had spent five years researching the events in order to produce his work (Pearson). Pearson gives a straight-forward account of the incident and outlines what had taken place in a documentary fashion from the explosion to the work stoppage and finally, the mutiny trial. Pearson’s account, however, only reflects the Navy’s authoritative perspective of the disaster and trial in affirming that the servicemen were at fault due to disobedient behavior. He heeds little attention to the possibility that the African-American servicemen involved may have had an alternative viewpoint of the situation. It is worth noting, however, that primary sources, such as the trial transcripts, were not declassified until 1972, eight years after Pearson published his book (Allen, xvii). He does not include any works cited or a bibliography, which makes it difficult to determine where his information was actually sourced, or to scrutinize the documents that he may have used. It is likely, however, that he made extensive use of newspaper sources. His resulting conjecture is that the “mutineers” did not deserve to share in the victory over Japan because they had refused to perform their duty in the time of war.
Dennis D. Nelson offers a stark opposition to Pearson’s view in The Integration of the Negro into the U.S. Navy, published in 1951. Nelson’s work must not have been a source that Pearson consulted in his research, or he did not give it serious consideration. In an era that commonly held that African-Americans were inferior to whites in physical ability and intellectual capacity, Nelson’s book builds on a concept that African-Americans do not differ any more from each other than they do from other groups of people. His work aims to demonstrate how the basic principles of leadership, response to leadership, and treatment are fundamentally the same regardless of the personnel involved. Nelson attributes the perceived shortcomings of African-American performance to the traditionally segregated organization of the Navy because this system did not afford them higher training or rank advancement opportunities when exemplary performance merited it. Although Nelson does not provide an in-depth study of the Port Chicago incident, the five pages his book dedicates to the topic suggest low morale, due to assigning African-American men “menial or laborious jobs” and neglecting to award advancements, as the leading sources for the disaster (Nelson, 80). Similarly, A. Russel Buchanan highlights the Port Chicago incident as support for his argument in Black Americans in World War II, published in 1977. Buchanan’s book looks at the broader struggle for equality of black Americans during the World War II era. He cites Thurgood Marshall’s involvement in the Port Chicago incident to argue that he helped put pressure on the Navy to readdress segregation within the institution, and suggesting that it took a catastrophe to finally bring attention to the issue (Buchanan).
Charles Wallenberg was able to access newly declassified trial documents and published an article based on his conclusions in the California History journal in 1979. Wallenberg’s article is entitled, “Blacks vs. Navy Blue: The Mare Island Mutiny Court Martial.” His article analyzes the mutiny trial and the bias aspects in which the trial was conducted. He gives examples of hearsay testimony being upheld on the side of the prosecution while similar testimony on the side of the defense was objected to and stricken from the record (Wollenberg, 68). Wallenberg then makes note that the defense never drew awareness to segregation or the possibility of race discrimination in the trial. Wallenberg brings attention to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s (NAACP) increasing interest and involvement in the case, especially as it was coming up for appeal. He argues that the NAACP saw the case as a race and segregation issue, opposed to a situation that actually constitutes a mutiny. He also discusses the amount of publicity that the case received but does not explore this in depth. Wallenberg closes his article by making connections to the Navy’s initial experiments with integration while the trial was still proceeding, due to the need for manpower and the “growing evidence of racial tension” in the Navy (Ibid, 74).
Robert L. Allen takes Wallenberg’s work a step further in The Port Chicago Mutiny: The Story of the Largest Mass Mutiny Trial in U.S. Naval History. Allen published his work in 1989 and gives a similar, but much more detailed, account which offers the most complete study on the Port Chicago affair. Allen was able to contact and interview several of the Port Chicago ‘mutineers’, giving the study a much more three-dimensional scope. With the stories that he was able to obtain, Allen provides the men’s viewpoints, discusses how they coped, and what the ordeal meant to them. He mentions that all the men that he had interviewed told him that he had been the first person that had ever contacted them about Port Chicago (Allen). Allen tells how the men of Port Chicago, on multiple occasions, had made requested to their officers to address issues that were leading to low morale among the ranks. The men also admitted their lack of training and the lack of knowledge from officers with regards to safely handling ammunition. Allen addresses issues that came up in the trial as well. Among the defense arguments was the assertion that the men’s psychological state after the explosion led them to fear loading ammunition. Allen believes this to be an important aspect of the case that was seriously disregarded during the trial. He dedicates a chapter of his book to psychology and notates the natural reactions people are expected to have after experiencing a catastrophic event. He continues by expressing how patterns of collective stress and mental health could have easily accounted for the behavior of the Port Chicago survivors. Allen also mentions the amount of press the affair received but does not probe into this deeply.
More recently, Steve Sheinkin published The Port Chicago 50 (Sheinkin). This book seems to be inspired by Allen’s efforts, as much of the information included gives the impression that it was drawn from his work. Some information offered, however, seems to be overstated or exaggerated but, it is not likely that Sheinkin is making an attempt at a fresh study of the subject. His book is targeted at adolescents, which may justify his embellishments by, perhaps, helping to demonstrate the realities of racism in the 1940s in contrast to how race operates within society today. His work seems more closely related to Buchanan’s study because it attempts to bring attention the race struggles in American history by focusing on episodes that have been largely disregarded. Sheinkin does make fantastic use of the trial transcripts by quoting depositions to demonstrate bias aspects of the trial. He also emphasizes that the trial obtained a great deal of press. Similar to other authors, however, Sheinkin does not go into detail about how the trial was portrayed in the news. The current studies on Port Chicago seem to lack a close look at the media. Because the explosion gained international press, and the trial was covered meticulously by multiple news outlets, this becomes an area of great interest with regards to the impact the media must have had in pressuring the Navy to make integration reforms.
Given the magnitude of the Port Chicago explosion, it instantly made headlines nationwide. The incident made the front page of nearly every paper across the country on July 18th, 1944. Interestingly enough, both the San Francisco Chronicle and the San Francisco Examiner did not publish a story on the explosion until July 19th, although other Bay Area papers released front-page reports the day before. The disaster also caught the headlines across Canada before the San Francisco papers, and the story hit the front page of the London Stars and Stripes in England the following day (“60 Killed in U.S. Supply Dump Blast”). The Chronicle’s late response in printing a story may be linked to speculation that the Navy did not want the media to immediately cover the incident. Regardless of any potential effort to restrict coverage, papers were still printing the story and even comparing the disaster to Halifax: a devastating cargo ship explosion in Nova Scotia during the First World War that resulted in the deaths of approximately two thousand people (“Loading Dock Blotted Out by Giant Blast”). The news outlets spared no detail in describing the destruction, body count estimates, the relief efforts, and even included scores of photographs. However, Black media, including the Chicago Defender and the Los Angeles Sentinel, did not immediately report on the disaster. Furthermore, only a few papers initially reported the large percentage of African-American servicemen among the casualties. This suggests that there was an effort to withhold this information, or that most papers did not consider it pertinent. As the Port Chicago incident continued to develop, however, the San Francisco Chronicle and, an African-American publication, the Chicago Defender emerged as two of the leading outlets that following the story.
The large number of African-American casualties was brought to the attention of the Black community after an official press release from the Navy. The Chicago Defender then printed its first report of the incident on July 29th, about two weeks after the explosion. The article published around 200 names of missing African-American servicemen (“Missing in Port Chicago Explosion”). These statistics, however, were largely overlooked by other printed media outlets. Papers with intended white audiences may not have felt it was necessary to honor the dead by printing their names individually. For example, the San Francisco Chronicle reported heavily on updates and disaster relief efforts through the subsequent four weeks of the disaster. Nevertheless, on July 31st, the Chronicle covered the naval ceremony honoring the dead but neglected to mention that the overwhelming percentage of victims were African-American, nor did the paper find it necessary to print any names of those who had lost their lives (“Navy Honors Dead at Port Chicago”).
The first conflicting reports of the Port Chicago affair appeared after a bill went to the Senate for approval. This bill was intended to authorize the Navy to settle claims for loss of life and property damage up to $5,000. The Navy department already had authority to settle claims up to $1,000; however, the Chronicle reported that John E. Rankin, a Mississippi senator, blocked the bill because he did not agree with devolving that much authority to any department. He argued that “any roof in California [could be fixed] for $1000” (“Rankin Blocks Bill to Aid Port Chicago Victims”). Conversely, the Defender reported that Rankin’s reason for blocking the bill was because it had come to his attention that “most of the beneficiaries were Negroes” (Rankin). Both Robert L. Allen and Steve Sheinkin present this reason for the obstruction of the bill as a matter of fact. This assertion may not be entirely misplaced as Rankin’s attitude towards African-Americans can be deduced from other documents such as his opposition statement to President Truman’s proposed anti-lynching legislation. Rankin was ultimately successful in urging that claims be individually submitted and investigated by the House Committee of Claims, and the bill was also reduced to a $3,000 cap.
While the Senate was hashing out disaster relief stipulations, many of the survivors of Port Chicago were put to work clearing the wreckage and removing the bodies of fellow servicemen from the disaster. Afterward, the men were sent to the Mare Island’s naval ammunition depot where they were expected to continue loading ammunition. They had not received any new ammunition handling training and did not receive any survivor’s leave to see their families, although their officers had been granted this concession (The Port Chicago Mutiny: Death and Defiance). Understandably, the men were concerned about their safety and would not load ammunition. The work stoppage at Mare Island, however, gained surprisingly little press. The only article that surfaced was buried in an edition of the Chronicle. The article’s title is in a much smaller font than any other story on the page and is overshadowed by a large advertisement for jewelry. The report simply states that the Twelfth Naval District announced that a group of “enlisted men” expressed reluctance to return to “routine ammunition handling” following the Port Chicago explosion but, after being informed of the seriousness of their failure to duty, “100 per sent [sic]” of the men returned to work (“Navy Strikers Back Handing Munitions”). The article, and perhaps the Navy’s release, does not mention the enlisted men’s ethnicity, and it downplays the impact that the Port Chicago explosion could have on a person’s decision to load ammunition. It is now also known that one-hundred percent of the men did not return to work. At this time, neither the press nor the Navy realized how significant of a story this incident would become; hence, the Chronicle’s treatment of the press release is without salience.
The court-martial that sprang from the work stoppage began on September 14th, 1944 and the Navy encouraged the press to cover the case. Allen suggests this prompting may have been intended to show that the trial would not be a “kangaroo court” and to “possibly intimidate other servicemen from dissent” (Allen, 94). Furthermore, he notes that the Navy’s public relations officers gave the case “much fanfare” by distributing press statements and photographs of the trial (Allen, 93). It is worth mentioning, however, that at this point the Navy began training white sailors to work alongside the black sailors as ammunition loaders at the repaired Port Chicago facility and at Mare Island (Allen, 131-32). This seems to have been an effort to deflect publicity away from the segregation of African-Americans into the most laborious and hazardous jobs as the trial gained publicity. Later, this effort also helped Admiral Forrestal rebuff intrusive questioning from Thurgood Marshal of the NAACP as tensions peaked after the trial.
With the Navy’s encouragement, the San Francisco Chronicle followed the case more closely than any other news outlet, printing an article about the trial on an average of every other day. When comparing the trial transcripts with the Chronicle’s reporting, the paper makes a surprisingly precise assessment. Their articles appear to be concise and accurate, probably hardly adjusted from the press releases the Navy had issued. This, however, made any bias in the reporting difficult to detect. Sheinkin makes particularly good use of the trial transcripts to demonstrate how the court never really seemed to be on the side of the defendants (Sheinkin, 104-41). With this in mind, the Chronicle’s bias can be found muted behind the larger context of the racial ideals of the era, and the first sense of this can be noticed seeping out of specific diction within their reporting.
Every article on the trial that the Chronicle published, with the exception of three, uses the word “Negro” in their first line. In an era when this word was commonly employed by both whites and blacks, initially its use seems impartial. Yet, the constant drilling at the race of the servicemen alienates them from the paper’s audience. After reading many articles, I found it difficult to feel empathy for the accused men, although I previously had. The Chronicle’s effort forces the implication that these “Negro[s, who]… refused to obey… order[s,]” are not hardworking Americans and do not support the war effort like the rest of us (“Sailors Fear of Munitions Told at Trial”). It is then not surprising that two of the three articles that do not include the word “Negro” in their first line were the last articles published before the trial concluded; by this time, any further repetition of the adjective would have simply been monotonous.
The first article regarding the prosecution that appears in the Chronicle is entitled “Chaplain Tells Defiance of Ship Loaders” followed by “The 50 Negro U.S. sailors…” (“Chaplain Tells Defiance of Ship Loaders”). Before looking any further, the reader is already being told that African-Americans are defying an authority of Christianity, a religion with which most Americans of the era identified closely. The article goes on to draw attention to the refusal to obey a “lawful” order and the “fact that the mutiny occurred while the Nation was engaged in war. The report has already begun accusing the defendants of guilt and demonstrates their opposition to the unifying strength of the nation. The story issued on September 22nd continued to use language that implies culpability. This article describes a list that was circulated among the men with the names of those who “refused” to work. This list, however, was never recovered to be examined as physical evidence and, consequently, the trial transcripts indicate that this list was only alleged by the prosecution as a “refusal” to work (Documents Related to Port Chicago Mutiny Trial).
Similarly, the Chronicle’s reporting of the defense conflicted with the trial transcripts. On September 28th, the paper reported that John H. Dunn made up “his own mind” not to load ammunition because “he was too small.” (“The Port Chicago’s Seaman’s Trial: Organized Resistance to Orders Denied”). The trial transcripts specify, however, that because of his small stature, he was under doctor’s orders not to handle ammunition and to be assigned to other duties. When approached by his superiors about loading ammunition during the work stoppage, Dunn simply stayed in accordance with the doctor’s orders. Although this information may have been misconstrued in the press release, it nevertheless presents Dunn as an agitator. The Chronicle also cites fear as the men’s motivation for not returning to work but, perhaps in an attempt to remain impartial, offers little background or sympathy as to why they were fearful. Without any depth, the reader cannot help but discern that this “fear of ammunition” is little more than an excuse to evade trouble. Although the Chronicle does well to report the facts as given, when examined closely, it becomes apparent that its reporting perpetuates the contemporary status quo of viewing African-Americans as errant and mendacious.
A leading African-American publication, the Chicago Defender, also followed the Port Chicago trial very closely. However, it is a weekly publication, so it did not quite keep up with the San Francisco Chronicle’s daily reporting. Similarly, the Defender also makes extensive use of the word “Negro” in its journalism. But, because the Defender is a black publication, using this adjective gives relevance to its audience as to why the Port Chicago story is important. The word “Negro”, conversely, allows readers to identify with the accused men and creates sympathy and concern about injustice against their community. When the first report of the sailor’s mutiny trial released, it hit the front page headline and states that the sailors were “protesting [the] dangerous ‘for Negros only’ job” of loading “lethal naval ammunition” after the explosion at Port Chicago (Badger, 1). Unlike the Chronicle, the Defender has a very conspicuous bias and intends to report in this manner.
The first article from the Defender, regarding the prosecution, stands in stark contrast with that of the Chronicle. Entitled, “Chaplain Tells Fear Of 50 Sailors In ‘Mutiny’,” it suggests a completely different story (Badger, 11). The article goes on to discuss little about the prosecution, but instead, addresses the circumstances of the affair. The article brings up the possibility of the death penalty, that the Chaplain testified to the men’s respectfulness towards their officers, and having “tears in their eyes” while they confessed their fears (Badger, 11). It continues by discussing the local African-American community’s opinions of the case which includes the Navy’s Jim Crow policies, the charge of mutiny as being too strong of an accusation for what had taken place, and the poor treatment of African-Americans in the armed forces. Instead of focusing tediously on the press releases from the trial, John Robert Badger of the Defender artfully crafts a story that appeals to ideas of exploitation, fear, vulnerability, injustice, and empathy. The reader cannot help but feel that there is a bigger picture that this episode is beginning to frame.
Previously, naval leaders argued that their “priority was to win a war, not solve the Nation’s race problems” (Sheinkin, 148). But by this time, Admiral James Forestall, Secretary of the Navy, began to notice that segregation was leading to “headaches like the ongoing [Port Chicago] trial.” As the media continued to report on the case, the issue of segregation was beginning to disrupt home-front unity that had the potential of risking the war. With the backing of President Roosevelt, Forrestal had black sailors assigned to serve with white sailors aboard twenty-five non-combatant ships (Sheinkin, 115). This was an experimental endeavor to see if black and white sailors would be able to get along. The Navy, obviously, could not immediately change their policies without expecting resistance among the ranks, but they were being faced with a good reason to see if integration was possible.
The Defender began reporting on the trial’s defense on October 7th, once more appealing to the emotions by stating that the defendants gave a “vivid, terrifying picture of the Port Chicago blast” (“Defense Begins in Mutiny Trial of 50”). The report does address key issues raised by the defense and counters the stories of specific men that the Chronicle discusses; however, the article has more to its agenda. Badger, again, turns to public opinion by offering that “Negro leaders and labor leaders feel” that the “Jim Crow angle” is an important factor in the case and needs to be addressed. Badger then provides that two “expert psychologists” stated that “shock impedes men from undertaking new risks” and “sometimes even normal activities”, furthermore, “convicting shock-induced men would be meaningless and cruel “ (Ibid.). Badger states that a hard conviction will only arouse resentment among African-Americans, “whether in or out of the armed forces,” therefore “damaging national unity in behalf of the war effort (Ibid.). Taking a completely different approach than the Chronicle that reported only on the trial updates, the Defender is actively rallying support from the community to impose the Navy’s ability to fight the war.
As the trail approached its end, the Defender published a very confident article expressing that the verdict would be favorable. At this point, the defense had national backing from the NAACP who had sent their chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall, to assist in the civil defense. The Defender’s article states that prejudice was observed on the side of the prosecution, it expressed confidence in the testimony of a Naval psychiatrist, noted that there was no proof of conspiracy, and drew attention to the proposals offered by the waterfront unions to help train Naval personnel to safely handle ammunition that had been ignored prior to the explosion (Badger, 3). After the deliberation, the servicemen were, however, found guilty of mutiny and were all sentenced to fifteen years in prison with a dishonorable discharge. The affair had not made a considerable national presence in the media since the explosion, but the story would again flood papers nationwide with the trail’s verdict.
President Roosevelt had previously shown himself as a pragmatic leader by issuing his Executive Order 8802 in 1941 that prohibit racial discrimination in the national defense industry (“Executive Order 8802: Prohibitions of Discrimination in the Defense Industry”). With this in mind, Edgar G. Brown of the National Negro Council in Illinois launched a petition to the President to grant a retrial for the Port Chicago case. In support of Brown’s effort, The Defender stated that the outcome of this trial was “vital towards preserving the principles for which the war is fought” (“Petition FDR for New Mutiny Trail”). This is interesting because another prominent black newspaper had been priming this movement since 1942 and their efforts were beginning to converge. The Pittsburgh Courier had been actively promoting the Double V campaign; victory overseas and victory at home (Thompson, 5). This was an effort pushing for active and equal participation in fighting the war and in everyday society for the black population of the country. Africa-Americans had become acutely aware of the paradox in fighting a war to end racism and white supremacy overseas while they continued to experience such oppressions in the United States; they sought to correct it. Brown’s petition would help catalyze the movement by threatening the war effort with resistance on the home-front. Labor and civil liberty organizations issued statements, protest meetings were held, and prominent individuals, including Eleanor Roosevelt and Langston Hughes, were backing efforts to have the Port Chicago convictions reversed (Allen, 12). Thurgood Marshal, with the NAACP, had prepared an extensive rebuttal to the case and noted key points that needed to be reexamined when the trial came up for appeal. The Navy had granted the NAACP permission to represent the servicemen if the case was appealed when it came up for review (Documents Related to Port Chicago Mutiny Trial, 1-15).Nevertheless, the appeal was denied and a retrial was never issued; but, other affairs began to foist additional pressure upon the Navy.
On the island of Guam, in the Pacific, African-American naval personnel became disorderly, claiming they were being provoked by annoyances and assaults from white Marines. They were becoming disheartened by their “untenable” working conditions and lack of reasonable promotions (Nelson, 82). Tensions between black Navy men and white Marines continued to intensify until Forty-five African-American seamen were ultimately convicted of “riot and unlawful possession of United States property” (Nelson, 83). After the affair gained the attention of numerous stateside organizations and newspapers, the men were ultimately acquitted. Meanwhile, back in California, a Navy Construction Battalion of African-Americans protested in mass against Jim Crow practices and lack of promotion. These men went on a hunger strike while continuing to work until their grievances were addressed. The issues of race and discrimination were compounding on the war effort and the influence of the press was making it clear to the Navy that segregation was “becoming a major aggravation, and worse, an unnecessary one (Sheinkin, 146).
With these growing pressures, the Navy began to find that the black and white sailors who had previously been integrated were getting along better than expected, or at least well enough to justify further merging. Increasing numbers of black sailor began to be placed into crews aboard ships and increasing numbers of white sailors were being given unpopular shore details (Ibid.). The emergence of black officers aboard ships also became a reality (Sheinkin, 146-48). Among these changes, the Port Chicago men would ultimately have their sentences significantly reduced and would be discharged honorably. Many of the men were let out of prison after about a year and were reintegrated into the Navy, being given seafaring duties for the duration of their service (Allen, 145). Unfortunately, their records would never be cleared of their mutiny conviction; however, integration was being implemented in the Navy and black sailors were gaining access to the same treatment and promotions as others.
While the San Francisco Chronical was reporting directly on the Port Chicago case to keep the public meticulously informed, it is clear that they were not entirely impartial in their reporting. But, in a pre-Civil Rights era, it would not be unreasonable to suggest that they did not see their reporting to be racially biased. The Chicago Defender, on the other hand, was reporting from an entirely different angle, making a considerable contribution to building on the larger campaign against racial injustice. The Defender steered away from reporting exclusively on the case and focused on circumstances surrounding the affair, using diction and interviews to sway public opinion and rally support. Furthermore, the trial transcripts suggest that the Navy intended to convict the Port Chicago men, regardless of sound evidence, in an effort to make an example that strict discipline would be upheld in time of war. The press, however, rallied so much opposition from the black community and liberal white groups that if the Navy were to convict these men, they would be at risk of dividing home-front unity, risking their ability to fight and win the war (Allen, 132).
As other race issues began to arise in the media during the growing pressures of the trial verdict, the Navy realized that the struggle at home was also beginning to hinder the war effort overseas. By highlighting these issues, the Defender demonstrates how influential and immediate news reporting was for the Port Chicago affair and for the movement as a whole. The initial efforts put forth by the Navy to integrate African-Americans helped to placate the public’s concern over segregation and unfair treatment in the military. But, the pressure asserted by the media ultimately culminated with President Truman’s Executive Order 9981 which, going a farther than Roosevelt’s executive order that had prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industry, abolished racial discrimination in the Armed Forces itself in 1948 (“Executive Order 9981: Equality in the Military”). Although the Navy was the most segregated branch in the U.S. Armed forces at the beginning of World War II, after the Port Chicago affair, it would be the first to desegregate (Buchanan, 89). It is clear that the Navy had little choice but to provide equality to all its servicemen if they expected to prevent their war-fighting ability from fracturing. Clearly, the Chicago Defender’s aberrant reporting of the Port Chicago situation played an integral role in bringing race issues to the surface and helping to unite a cause for change.
Works Cited:
Primary Sources:
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“650 Killed in U.S. Supply-Dump Blast.” London Stars and Stripes. July 19, 1944, accessed October 23, 2015, http://newspaperarchive.com/uk/middlesex/london/london-stars-and-stripes/1944/07-19?tag=port+chicago&rtserp=tags/port-chicago?pci=6&ndt=ex&pd=19&pm=7&py=1944/
Anspacher, Carolyn. “A Town Dies Hard: Each Port Chicago Building Shows Struggle for Life,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 19, 1944: 1, accessed October 30, 2015, http://infoweb.newsbank.com/resources/doc/nb/image/v2:142051F45F422A02@EANX-NB-15002C73FAC8E5FF@2431291-14FF7A9E31D23BD6@0?p=AMNEWS.
Badger, John Robert: Defender, Staff Correspondent. "50 SAILORS FACE TRIAL FOR MUTINY," The Chicago Defender (National Edition) (1921-1967), September 23, 1944: 1, accessed October 23, 2015, http://0-search.proquest.com.opac.sfsu.edu/docview/492660371?accountid=13802.
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––."Port Chicago 'Mutiny' Trial of 50 Becoming 'Hot Potato' for Navy," The Chicago Defender (National Edition) (1921-1967), October 21, 1944: 3, accessed October 23, 2015, http://0-search.proquest.com.opac.sfsu.edu/docview/492684513?accountid=13802.
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Documents relating to Port Chicago mutiny trial. 1942. UC Berkeley Libraries, Berkeley, Ca. Collection contains photocopies of the trial transcripts, 901-1050.
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Hughes, Langston. "HERE TO YONDER." The Chicago Defender (National Edition) (1921-1967), December 2, 1944: 12, accessed October 23, 2015, http://0-search.proquest.com.opac.sfsu.edu/docview/492733128?accountid=13802.
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Rankin, John. "Statement of Hon. John E. Rankin, A Representative in Congress from the State of Mississippi." History Matters, accessed October 28, 2015, http://mdk12.msde.maryland.gov/instruction/curriculum/hsa/us_history/social_response_doc14.pdf
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Secondary Sources:
Allen, Robert L. The Port Chicago Mutiny: The Story of the Largest Mass Mutiny Trial in U.S. Naval History. New York, NY: Amistad, 1989.
Buchanan, A. Russell. Black Americans in World War II. Santa Barbara, CA: Clio, 1977.
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Channel, n.d. Videocassette.
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Heroes of World War II. New York, NY: One World Ballantine, 2005.
Nelson, Dennis D. The Integration of the Negro into the U.S. Navy. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Young, 1951.
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By July of 1941, the war between the United States and Japan was drawing increasingly closer. The U.S. Navy realized that when war came, its West Coast ammunition shipping facilities would not be sufficient, so they began to look into constructing a new facility. The waterfront outside the town of Port Chicago was selected for the new site. The Port Chicago facility was built and located about fifteen miles east of Vallejo, California, where the San Joaquin River drains into the San Francisco Bay. The facility was completed by November 1942 and would operate as a segregated ammunition shipping dock. The black enlisted men stationed at Port Chicago were trained as seamen upon entering the Navy; however, these men only ever saw shore duty during their naval careers. They were assigned to work as stevedores, loading a range of explosives and ammunition onto cargo ships, a job that they had never been trained to do. Their commanding officers were all white men who had also not been trained for this task. They assured their enlisted men that the ammunition they loaded could not explode because they lacked the necessary detonators. However, on July 17th, 1944, it did.
The detonation was described as equivalent to five kilotons of TNT or, in other words, one-third the magnitude of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, Japan in August 1945 (Allen, 64). The explosion completely destroyed the two cargo ships that were being loaded, as well as the entirety of the loading facility. Every building in the town of Port Chicago, located about two miles away, was reported damaged. 320 enlisted men were killed, 202 of which were black servicemen, constituting fifteen percent of all African-American deaths in the Second World War (Ibid.) An additional 390 military personnel and civilians were injured. After the explosion, the surviving enlisted men were employed for disaster relief and all were then sent to Mare Island to continue loading ammunitions. The men were without leave, still without proper training, and any grievances they had had were still not addressed. On August 9th, 10th, and 11th, a total of 328 enlisted men from three separate divisions refused to continue handling ammunition under the same conditions; but, making it known that they would follow all other orders they were given. The men were addressed by their admiral who told them that “mutinous conduct in time of war carries the death sentence” (Allen, 85). All but forty-four men eventually agreed to go back to work, although not without being given summary court-martials on charges of refusing to obey orders. The number of men not willing to load ammunition increased the following day, as an additional six men who had agreed to work failed to show up for their duty. This group of, now fifty, African-American servicemen were then held in a six-week trial and ultimately convicted on charges of conspiracy to mutiny.
Two decades after the incident, a general history was written on Port Chicago, as the topic had previously been referenced by other historians discussing the struggles for equality faced by African-Americans during the World War II era. After primary resources from the trial were publicly released, historians began to examine the case itself. Efforts were made to uncover the side of the story belonging to the men charged with mutiny and to raise awareness of the impact that the affair had on American history. The explosion at Port Chicago received substantial media coverage; however, the work stoppage at the Mare Island naval ammunition depot was given very little. Two newspapers, the San Francisco Chronicle and the Chicago Defender, emerged as leading media outlets following the Port Chicago affair. These papers covered the trial with variability in their approach, and racial biases between the Chronicle and the Defender can be determined to having effects upon the opinions of their intended audiences. After the court-martial’s verdict, efforts would be made to appeal the decision and this pressure would help make an impact on the outcome on racial segregation in the Navy, as well as the Armed Forces.
Robert E. Pearson was the first person to take on a history of the Port Chicago incident at length. Though his book is no longer in print, Pearson’s No Share of Glory was published in 1964 and states that he had spent five years researching the events in order to produce his work (Pearson). Pearson gives a straight-forward account of the incident and outlines what had taken place in a documentary fashion from the explosion to the work stoppage and finally, the mutiny trial. Pearson’s account, however, only reflects the Navy’s authoritative perspective of the disaster and trial in affirming that the servicemen were at fault due to disobedient behavior. He heeds little attention to the possibility that the African-American servicemen involved may have had an alternative viewpoint of the situation. It is worth noting, however, that primary sources, such as the trial transcripts, were not declassified until 1972, eight years after Pearson published his book (Allen, xvii). He does not include any works cited or a bibliography, which makes it difficult to determine where his information was actually sourced, or to scrutinize the documents that he may have used. It is likely, however, that he made extensive use of newspaper sources. His resulting conjecture is that the “mutineers” did not deserve to share in the victory over Japan because they had refused to perform their duty in the time of war.
Dennis D. Nelson offers a stark opposition to Pearson’s view in The Integration of the Negro into the U.S. Navy, published in 1951. Nelson’s work must not have been a source that Pearson consulted in his research, or he did not give it serious consideration. In an era that commonly held that African-Americans were inferior to whites in physical ability and intellectual capacity, Nelson’s book builds on a concept that African-Americans do not differ any more from each other than they do from other groups of people. His work aims to demonstrate how the basic principles of leadership, response to leadership, and treatment are fundamentally the same regardless of the personnel involved. Nelson attributes the perceived shortcomings of African-American performance to the traditionally segregated organization of the Navy because this system did not afford them higher training or rank advancement opportunities when exemplary performance merited it. Although Nelson does not provide an in-depth study of the Port Chicago incident, the five pages his book dedicates to the topic suggest low morale, due to assigning African-American men “menial or laborious jobs” and neglecting to award advancements, as the leading sources for the disaster (Nelson, 80). Similarly, A. Russel Buchanan highlights the Port Chicago incident as support for his argument in Black Americans in World War II, published in 1977. Buchanan’s book looks at the broader struggle for equality of black Americans during the World War II era. He cites Thurgood Marshall’s involvement in the Port Chicago incident to argue that he helped put pressure on the Navy to readdress segregation within the institution, and suggesting that it took a catastrophe to finally bring attention to the issue (Buchanan).
Charles Wallenberg was able to access newly declassified trial documents and published an article based on his conclusions in the California History journal in 1979. Wallenberg’s article is entitled, “Blacks vs. Navy Blue: The Mare Island Mutiny Court Martial.” His article analyzes the mutiny trial and the bias aspects in which the trial was conducted. He gives examples of hearsay testimony being upheld on the side of the prosecution while similar testimony on the side of the defense was objected to and stricken from the record (Wollenberg, 68). Wallenberg then makes note that the defense never drew awareness to segregation or the possibility of race discrimination in the trial. Wallenberg brings attention to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People’s (NAACP) increasing interest and involvement in the case, especially as it was coming up for appeal. He argues that the NAACP saw the case as a race and segregation issue, opposed to a situation that actually constitutes a mutiny. He also discusses the amount of publicity that the case received but does not explore this in depth. Wallenberg closes his article by making connections to the Navy’s initial experiments with integration while the trial was still proceeding, due to the need for manpower and the “growing evidence of racial tension” in the Navy (Ibid, 74).
Robert L. Allen takes Wallenberg’s work a step further in The Port Chicago Mutiny: The Story of the Largest Mass Mutiny Trial in U.S. Naval History. Allen published his work in 1989 and gives a similar, but much more detailed, account which offers the most complete study on the Port Chicago affair. Allen was able to contact and interview several of the Port Chicago ‘mutineers’, giving the study a much more three-dimensional scope. With the stories that he was able to obtain, Allen provides the men’s viewpoints, discusses how they coped, and what the ordeal meant to them. He mentions that all the men that he had interviewed told him that he had been the first person that had ever contacted them about Port Chicago (Allen). Allen tells how the men of Port Chicago, on multiple occasions, had made requested to their officers to address issues that were leading to low morale among the ranks. The men also admitted their lack of training and the lack of knowledge from officers with regards to safely handling ammunition. Allen addresses issues that came up in the trial as well. Among the defense arguments was the assertion that the men’s psychological state after the explosion led them to fear loading ammunition. Allen believes this to be an important aspect of the case that was seriously disregarded during the trial. He dedicates a chapter of his book to psychology and notates the natural reactions people are expected to have after experiencing a catastrophic event. He continues by expressing how patterns of collective stress and mental health could have easily accounted for the behavior of the Port Chicago survivors. Allen also mentions the amount of press the affair received but does not probe into this deeply.
More recently, Steve Sheinkin published The Port Chicago 50 (Sheinkin). This book seems to be inspired by Allen’s efforts, as much of the information included gives the impression that it was drawn from his work. Some information offered, however, seems to be overstated or exaggerated but, it is not likely that Sheinkin is making an attempt at a fresh study of the subject. His book is targeted at adolescents, which may justify his embellishments by, perhaps, helping to demonstrate the realities of racism in the 1940s in contrast to how race operates within society today. His work seems more closely related to Buchanan’s study because it attempts to bring attention the race struggles in American history by focusing on episodes that have been largely disregarded. Sheinkin does make fantastic use of the trial transcripts by quoting depositions to demonstrate bias aspects of the trial. He also emphasizes that the trial obtained a great deal of press. Similar to other authors, however, Sheinkin does not go into detail about how the trial was portrayed in the news. The current studies on Port Chicago seem to lack a close look at the media. Because the explosion gained international press, and the trial was covered meticulously by multiple news outlets, this becomes an area of great interest with regards to the impact the media must have had in pressuring the Navy to make integration reforms.
Given the magnitude of the Port Chicago explosion, it instantly made headlines nationwide. The incident made the front page of nearly every paper across the country on July 18th, 1944. Interestingly enough, both the San Francisco Chronicle and the San Francisco Examiner did not publish a story on the explosion until July 19th, although other Bay Area papers released front-page reports the day before. The disaster also caught the headlines across Canada before the San Francisco papers, and the story hit the front page of the London Stars and Stripes in England the following day (“60 Killed in U.S. Supply Dump Blast”). The Chronicle’s late response in printing a story may be linked to speculation that the Navy did not want the media to immediately cover the incident. Regardless of any potential effort to restrict coverage, papers were still printing the story and even comparing the disaster to Halifax: a devastating cargo ship explosion in Nova Scotia during the First World War that resulted in the deaths of approximately two thousand people (“Loading Dock Blotted Out by Giant Blast”). The news outlets spared no detail in describing the destruction, body count estimates, the relief efforts, and even included scores of photographs. However, Black media, including the Chicago Defender and the Los Angeles Sentinel, did not immediately report on the disaster. Furthermore, only a few papers initially reported the large percentage of African-American servicemen among the casualties. This suggests that there was an effort to withhold this information, or that most papers did not consider it pertinent. As the Port Chicago incident continued to develop, however, the San Francisco Chronicle and, an African-American publication, the Chicago Defender emerged as two of the leading outlets that following the story.
The large number of African-American casualties was brought to the attention of the Black community after an official press release from the Navy. The Chicago Defender then printed its first report of the incident on July 29th, about two weeks after the explosion. The article published around 200 names of missing African-American servicemen (“Missing in Port Chicago Explosion”). These statistics, however, were largely overlooked by other printed media outlets. Papers with intended white audiences may not have felt it was necessary to honor the dead by printing their names individually. For example, the San Francisco Chronicle reported heavily on updates and disaster relief efforts through the subsequent four weeks of the disaster. Nevertheless, on July 31st, the Chronicle covered the naval ceremony honoring the dead but neglected to mention that the overwhelming percentage of victims were African-American, nor did the paper find it necessary to print any names of those who had lost their lives (“Navy Honors Dead at Port Chicago”).
The first conflicting reports of the Port Chicago affair appeared after a bill went to the Senate for approval. This bill was intended to authorize the Navy to settle claims for loss of life and property damage up to $5,000. The Navy department already had authority to settle claims up to $1,000; however, the Chronicle reported that John E. Rankin, a Mississippi senator, blocked the bill because he did not agree with devolving that much authority to any department. He argued that “any roof in California [could be fixed] for $1000” (“Rankin Blocks Bill to Aid Port Chicago Victims”). Conversely, the Defender reported that Rankin’s reason for blocking the bill was because it had come to his attention that “most of the beneficiaries were Negroes” (Rankin). Both Robert L. Allen and Steve Sheinkin present this reason for the obstruction of the bill as a matter of fact. This assertion may not be entirely misplaced as Rankin’s attitude towards African-Americans can be deduced from other documents such as his opposition statement to President Truman’s proposed anti-lynching legislation. Rankin was ultimately successful in urging that claims be individually submitted and investigated by the House Committee of Claims, and the bill was also reduced to a $3,000 cap.
While the Senate was hashing out disaster relief stipulations, many of the survivors of Port Chicago were put to work clearing the wreckage and removing the bodies of fellow servicemen from the disaster. Afterward, the men were sent to the Mare Island’s naval ammunition depot where they were expected to continue loading ammunition. They had not received any new ammunition handling training and did not receive any survivor’s leave to see their families, although their officers had been granted this concession (The Port Chicago Mutiny: Death and Defiance). Understandably, the men were concerned about their safety and would not load ammunition. The work stoppage at Mare Island, however, gained surprisingly little press. The only article that surfaced was buried in an edition of the Chronicle. The article’s title is in a much smaller font than any other story on the page and is overshadowed by a large advertisement for jewelry. The report simply states that the Twelfth Naval District announced that a group of “enlisted men” expressed reluctance to return to “routine ammunition handling” following the Port Chicago explosion but, after being informed of the seriousness of their failure to duty, “100 per sent [sic]” of the men returned to work (“Navy Strikers Back Handing Munitions”). The article, and perhaps the Navy’s release, does not mention the enlisted men’s ethnicity, and it downplays the impact that the Port Chicago explosion could have on a person’s decision to load ammunition. It is now also known that one-hundred percent of the men did not return to work. At this time, neither the press nor the Navy realized how significant of a story this incident would become; hence, the Chronicle’s treatment of the press release is without salience.
The court-martial that sprang from the work stoppage began on September 14th, 1944 and the Navy encouraged the press to cover the case. Allen suggests this prompting may have been intended to show that the trial would not be a “kangaroo court” and to “possibly intimidate other servicemen from dissent” (Allen, 94). Furthermore, he notes that the Navy’s public relations officers gave the case “much fanfare” by distributing press statements and photographs of the trial (Allen, 93). It is worth mentioning, however, that at this point the Navy began training white sailors to work alongside the black sailors as ammunition loaders at the repaired Port Chicago facility and at Mare Island (Allen, 131-32). This seems to have been an effort to deflect publicity away from the segregation of African-Americans into the most laborious and hazardous jobs as the trial gained publicity. Later, this effort also helped Admiral Forrestal rebuff intrusive questioning from Thurgood Marshal of the NAACP as tensions peaked after the trial.
With the Navy’s encouragement, the San Francisco Chronicle followed the case more closely than any other news outlet, printing an article about the trial on an average of every other day. When comparing the trial transcripts with the Chronicle’s reporting, the paper makes a surprisingly precise assessment. Their articles appear to be concise and accurate, probably hardly adjusted from the press releases the Navy had issued. This, however, made any bias in the reporting difficult to detect. Sheinkin makes particularly good use of the trial transcripts to demonstrate how the court never really seemed to be on the side of the defendants (Sheinkin, 104-41). With this in mind, the Chronicle’s bias can be found muted behind the larger context of the racial ideals of the era, and the first sense of this can be noticed seeping out of specific diction within their reporting.
Every article on the trial that the Chronicle published, with the exception of three, uses the word “Negro” in their first line. In an era when this word was commonly employed by both whites and blacks, initially its use seems impartial. Yet, the constant drilling at the race of the servicemen alienates them from the paper’s audience. After reading many articles, I found it difficult to feel empathy for the accused men, although I previously had. The Chronicle’s effort forces the implication that these “Negro[s, who]… refused to obey… order[s,]” are not hardworking Americans and do not support the war effort like the rest of us (“Sailors Fear of Munitions Told at Trial”). It is then not surprising that two of the three articles that do not include the word “Negro” in their first line were the last articles published before the trial concluded; by this time, any further repetition of the adjective would have simply been monotonous.
The first article regarding the prosecution that appears in the Chronicle is entitled “Chaplain Tells Defiance of Ship Loaders” followed by “The 50 Negro U.S. sailors…” (“Chaplain Tells Defiance of Ship Loaders”). Before looking any further, the reader is already being told that African-Americans are defying an authority of Christianity, a religion with which most Americans of the era identified closely. The article goes on to draw attention to the refusal to obey a “lawful” order and the “fact that the mutiny occurred while the Nation was engaged in war. The report has already begun accusing the defendants of guilt and demonstrates their opposition to the unifying strength of the nation. The story issued on September 22nd continued to use language that implies culpability. This article describes a list that was circulated among the men with the names of those who “refused” to work. This list, however, was never recovered to be examined as physical evidence and, consequently, the trial transcripts indicate that this list was only alleged by the prosecution as a “refusal” to work (Documents Related to Port Chicago Mutiny Trial).
Similarly, the Chronicle’s reporting of the defense conflicted with the trial transcripts. On September 28th, the paper reported that John H. Dunn made up “his own mind” not to load ammunition because “he was too small.” (“The Port Chicago’s Seaman’s Trial: Organized Resistance to Orders Denied”). The trial transcripts specify, however, that because of his small stature, he was under doctor’s orders not to handle ammunition and to be assigned to other duties. When approached by his superiors about loading ammunition during the work stoppage, Dunn simply stayed in accordance with the doctor’s orders. Although this information may have been misconstrued in the press release, it nevertheless presents Dunn as an agitator. The Chronicle also cites fear as the men’s motivation for not returning to work but, perhaps in an attempt to remain impartial, offers little background or sympathy as to why they were fearful. Without any depth, the reader cannot help but discern that this “fear of ammunition” is little more than an excuse to evade trouble. Although the Chronicle does well to report the facts as given, when examined closely, it becomes apparent that its reporting perpetuates the contemporary status quo of viewing African-Americans as errant and mendacious.
A leading African-American publication, the Chicago Defender, also followed the Port Chicago trial very closely. However, it is a weekly publication, so it did not quite keep up with the San Francisco Chronicle’s daily reporting. Similarly, the Defender also makes extensive use of the word “Negro” in its journalism. But, because the Defender is a black publication, using this adjective gives relevance to its audience as to why the Port Chicago story is important. The word “Negro”, conversely, allows readers to identify with the accused men and creates sympathy and concern about injustice against their community. When the first report of the sailor’s mutiny trial released, it hit the front page headline and states that the sailors were “protesting [the] dangerous ‘for Negros only’ job” of loading “lethal naval ammunition” after the explosion at Port Chicago (Badger, 1). Unlike the Chronicle, the Defender has a very conspicuous bias and intends to report in this manner.
The first article from the Defender, regarding the prosecution, stands in stark contrast with that of the Chronicle. Entitled, “Chaplain Tells Fear Of 50 Sailors In ‘Mutiny’,” it suggests a completely different story (Badger, 11). The article goes on to discuss little about the prosecution, but instead, addresses the circumstances of the affair. The article brings up the possibility of the death penalty, that the Chaplain testified to the men’s respectfulness towards their officers, and having “tears in their eyes” while they confessed their fears (Badger, 11). It continues by discussing the local African-American community’s opinions of the case which includes the Navy’s Jim Crow policies, the charge of mutiny as being too strong of an accusation for what had taken place, and the poor treatment of African-Americans in the armed forces. Instead of focusing tediously on the press releases from the trial, John Robert Badger of the Defender artfully crafts a story that appeals to ideas of exploitation, fear, vulnerability, injustice, and empathy. The reader cannot help but feel that there is a bigger picture that this episode is beginning to frame.
Previously, naval leaders argued that their “priority was to win a war, not solve the Nation’s race problems” (Sheinkin, 148). But by this time, Admiral James Forestall, Secretary of the Navy, began to notice that segregation was leading to “headaches like the ongoing [Port Chicago] trial.” As the media continued to report on the case, the issue of segregation was beginning to disrupt home-front unity that had the potential of risking the war. With the backing of President Roosevelt, Forrestal had black sailors assigned to serve with white sailors aboard twenty-five non-combatant ships (Sheinkin, 115). This was an experimental endeavor to see if black and white sailors would be able to get along. The Navy, obviously, could not immediately change their policies without expecting resistance among the ranks, but they were being faced with a good reason to see if integration was possible.
The Defender began reporting on the trial’s defense on October 7th, once more appealing to the emotions by stating that the defendants gave a “vivid, terrifying picture of the Port Chicago blast” (“Defense Begins in Mutiny Trial of 50”). The report does address key issues raised by the defense and counters the stories of specific men that the Chronicle discusses; however, the article has more to its agenda. Badger, again, turns to public opinion by offering that “Negro leaders and labor leaders feel” that the “Jim Crow angle” is an important factor in the case and needs to be addressed. Badger then provides that two “expert psychologists” stated that “shock impedes men from undertaking new risks” and “sometimes even normal activities”, furthermore, “convicting shock-induced men would be meaningless and cruel “ (Ibid.). Badger states that a hard conviction will only arouse resentment among African-Americans, “whether in or out of the armed forces,” therefore “damaging national unity in behalf of the war effort (Ibid.). Taking a completely different approach than the Chronicle that reported only on the trial updates, the Defender is actively rallying support from the community to impose the Navy’s ability to fight the war.
As the trail approached its end, the Defender published a very confident article expressing that the verdict would be favorable. At this point, the defense had national backing from the NAACP who had sent their chief counsel, Thurgood Marshall, to assist in the civil defense. The Defender’s article states that prejudice was observed on the side of the prosecution, it expressed confidence in the testimony of a Naval psychiatrist, noted that there was no proof of conspiracy, and drew attention to the proposals offered by the waterfront unions to help train Naval personnel to safely handle ammunition that had been ignored prior to the explosion (Badger, 3). After the deliberation, the servicemen were, however, found guilty of mutiny and were all sentenced to fifteen years in prison with a dishonorable discharge. The affair had not made a considerable national presence in the media since the explosion, but the story would again flood papers nationwide with the trail’s verdict.
President Roosevelt had previously shown himself as a pragmatic leader by issuing his Executive Order 8802 in 1941 that prohibit racial discrimination in the national defense industry (“Executive Order 8802: Prohibitions of Discrimination in the Defense Industry”). With this in mind, Edgar G. Brown of the National Negro Council in Illinois launched a petition to the President to grant a retrial for the Port Chicago case. In support of Brown’s effort, The Defender stated that the outcome of this trial was “vital towards preserving the principles for which the war is fought” (“Petition FDR for New Mutiny Trail”). This is interesting because another prominent black newspaper had been priming this movement since 1942 and their efforts were beginning to converge. The Pittsburgh Courier had been actively promoting the Double V campaign; victory overseas and victory at home (Thompson, 5). This was an effort pushing for active and equal participation in fighting the war and in everyday society for the black population of the country. Africa-Americans had become acutely aware of the paradox in fighting a war to end racism and white supremacy overseas while they continued to experience such oppressions in the United States; they sought to correct it. Brown’s petition would help catalyze the movement by threatening the war effort with resistance on the home-front. Labor and civil liberty organizations issued statements, protest meetings were held, and prominent individuals, including Eleanor Roosevelt and Langston Hughes, were backing efforts to have the Port Chicago convictions reversed (Allen, 12). Thurgood Marshal, with the NAACP, had prepared an extensive rebuttal to the case and noted key points that needed to be reexamined when the trial came up for appeal. The Navy had granted the NAACP permission to represent the servicemen if the case was appealed when it came up for review (Documents Related to Port Chicago Mutiny Trial, 1-15).Nevertheless, the appeal was denied and a retrial was never issued; but, other affairs began to foist additional pressure upon the Navy.
On the island of Guam, in the Pacific, African-American naval personnel became disorderly, claiming they were being provoked by annoyances and assaults from white Marines. They were becoming disheartened by their “untenable” working conditions and lack of reasonable promotions (Nelson, 82). Tensions between black Navy men and white Marines continued to intensify until Forty-five African-American seamen were ultimately convicted of “riot and unlawful possession of United States property” (Nelson, 83). After the affair gained the attention of numerous stateside organizations and newspapers, the men were ultimately acquitted. Meanwhile, back in California, a Navy Construction Battalion of African-Americans protested in mass against Jim Crow practices and lack of promotion. These men went on a hunger strike while continuing to work until their grievances were addressed. The issues of race and discrimination were compounding on the war effort and the influence of the press was making it clear to the Navy that segregation was “becoming a major aggravation, and worse, an unnecessary one (Sheinkin, 146).
With these growing pressures, the Navy began to find that the black and white sailors who had previously been integrated were getting along better than expected, or at least well enough to justify further merging. Increasing numbers of black sailor began to be placed into crews aboard ships and increasing numbers of white sailors were being given unpopular shore details (Ibid.). The emergence of black officers aboard ships also became a reality (Sheinkin, 146-48). Among these changes, the Port Chicago men would ultimately have their sentences significantly reduced and would be discharged honorably. Many of the men were let out of prison after about a year and were reintegrated into the Navy, being given seafaring duties for the duration of their service (Allen, 145). Unfortunately, their records would never be cleared of their mutiny conviction; however, integration was being implemented in the Navy and black sailors were gaining access to the same treatment and promotions as others.
While the San Francisco Chronical was reporting directly on the Port Chicago case to keep the public meticulously informed, it is clear that they were not entirely impartial in their reporting. But, in a pre-Civil Rights era, it would not be unreasonable to suggest that they did not see their reporting to be racially biased. The Chicago Defender, on the other hand, was reporting from an entirely different angle, making a considerable contribution to building on the larger campaign against racial injustice. The Defender steered away from reporting exclusively on the case and focused on circumstances surrounding the affair, using diction and interviews to sway public opinion and rally support. Furthermore, the trial transcripts suggest that the Navy intended to convict the Port Chicago men, regardless of sound evidence, in an effort to make an example that strict discipline would be upheld in time of war. The press, however, rallied so much opposition from the black community and liberal white groups that if the Navy were to convict these men, they would be at risk of dividing home-front unity, risking their ability to fight and win the war (Allen, 132).
As other race issues began to arise in the media during the growing pressures of the trial verdict, the Navy realized that the struggle at home was also beginning to hinder the war effort overseas. By highlighting these issues, the Defender demonstrates how influential and immediate news reporting was for the Port Chicago affair and for the movement as a whole. The initial efforts put forth by the Navy to integrate African-Americans helped to placate the public’s concern over segregation and unfair treatment in the military. But, the pressure asserted by the media ultimately culminated with President Truman’s Executive Order 9981 which, going a farther than Roosevelt’s executive order that had prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industry, abolished racial discrimination in the Armed Forces itself in 1948 (“Executive Order 9981: Equality in the Military”). Although the Navy was the most segregated branch in the U.S. Armed forces at the beginning of World War II, after the Port Chicago affair, it would be the first to desegregate (Buchanan, 89). It is clear that the Navy had little choice but to provide equality to all its servicemen if they expected to prevent their war-fighting ability from fracturing. Clearly, the Chicago Defender’s aberrant reporting of the Port Chicago situation played an integral role in bringing race issues to the surface and helping to unite a cause for change.
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Nancy Rodriguez Zambo
Emancipating the Curated Filipino
Emancipating the Curated Filipino
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Nancy Zambo is a Filipino American student majoring in Communication Studies at San Francisco State University. She is inspired by empowering individuals both personally and professionally through various avenues of communication, education, and leadership.
In researching her family stories that parallel Filipino immigration pathways from the Philippines to Hawaii and California, she found American colonial mentality to be a structural part of a complex identity for Filipino Americans. In uncovering her Filipino history she hopes to contribute perspective on Filipino experience and identity through writing. The essay presented here was influenced by taking a critical approach to identity and creating an academic response to representations of Filipinos.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, NICO PECK:
Nancy’s essay performs a rhetorical analysis of a cultural artifact through the lens of environmental communication. She highlights the relationships between colonialism and climate injustice by analyzing a photograph of Filipinos from the 1904 World’s Fair. By dismantling how the colonized body is curated, Nancy offers insights into how analyzing historical artifacts can support the understanding of the present climate crisis.
Nancy Zambo is a Filipino American student majoring in Communication Studies at San Francisco State University. She is inspired by empowering individuals both personally and professionally through various avenues of communication, education, and leadership.
In researching her family stories that parallel Filipino immigration pathways from the Philippines to Hawaii and California, she found American colonial mentality to be a structural part of a complex identity for Filipino Americans. In uncovering her Filipino history she hopes to contribute perspective on Filipino experience and identity through writing. The essay presented here was influenced by taking a critical approach to identity and creating an academic response to representations of Filipinos.
COMMENT FROM LECTURER, NICO PECK:
Nancy’s essay performs a rhetorical analysis of a cultural artifact through the lens of environmental communication. She highlights the relationships between colonialism and climate injustice by analyzing a photograph of Filipinos from the 1904 World’s Fair. By dismantling how the colonized body is curated, Nancy offers insights into how analyzing historical artifacts can support the understanding of the present climate crisis.
In the process of navigating my Filipino identity, I learned that colonization largely impacts how Filipinos are perceived, how we perceive ourselves, and how we perceive our environment. As a result of colonialism and assimilation, Filipino Americans have been influenced by the ideologies of their oppressors, which has affected their relationship to the natural world. “Social ecologists believe that the human urge to dominate nature stems from humans’ domination of other humans” (Hendry, 2010, p 69). Therefore, from a social ecological point of view, the United States’ move to deplete the Philippines’ resources for capitalistic gains stems from their colonialist practices. In order to understand this progressive desire for domination, I will analyze a non-discursive artifact—a photograph of the Filipino exhibit at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair. After establishing the context for my chosen relic, I will use its situational and stylistic elements to show how the photograph propagated colonial rhetoric. Finally, by bringing indigenous Filipino history into this conversation about American colonialism, I argue that deconstruction of colonial rhetoric is possible and that Filipinos’ relationship with the natural world can be restored to one of interdependence rather than dominance.
The acquisition of the Philippines allowed the United States to increase its political posture in the Pacific and gain resources that would propel them into a more powerful economic position. In order to justify the exploitation of the Philippines and its people, the United States strategized with the St. Louis World’s Fair curators on how the fair could be utilized to spread colonial rhetoric to the masses through live human exhibits showcasing Filipinos. These showcases accomplished what some have deemed the “third phase of colonization” which “begins as the colonized are portrayed as wild, savage, and uncivilized peoples whom the colonizer have to nobly monitor, tame, and civilize” (David 2013, p 55). The exhibits at the St. Louis World’s Fair were meant to perpetuate this narrative in order to justify the exploitation of Filipinos. Unfortunately, this is a history shared by many people of color in the United States.
In order to understand how the third phase of colonization was deployed, I have chosen to analyze a photograph from the 1904 World’s Fair in St. Louis—a representation of the Philippine exhibit. In 1902, the United States took control of the Philippines, and “so that Americans could familiarize themselves with the people from their latest acquisition, hundreds of live Filipinos were placed on display at the fair” (Maxwell, 2015, p 227). The 1904 World’s fair allowed the United States to exploit indigenous traditions and customs, while selling a false narrative that justified the colonization of the Philippines and asserted the assumed superiority of the United States. David elaborates on the persuasive elements of colonialism by stating that, “for Americans to see themselves as being responsible for civilizing the rest of the world, they also had to buy the assumption that everyone else is inferior, wild, savage, and uncivilized” (David, 2013, p 30-31). The photograph from the fair is a non-discursive artifact and a tool to create a socially constructed reality that Filipinos are in fact inferior to Americans and needed to be civilized.
Strategic planning for the live human exhibit included the regulation of how the exhibit was perceived. Anne Maxwell discusses this regulation by studying how photographic licenses were issued at the fair. (Maxwell, 2015, p228). Photographers were screened prior to entry, and photographs were reviewed before public release to ensure that the non-discursive rhetoric benefitted the United States. Maxwell goes on to say, “Every single photograph that reached the public - whether in the form of an individually signed souvenir photograph or postcard sold in the fairground - was subject to a censoring process (Maxwell, 2015, p 228). Censorship was used to monitor and control the desired colonial rhetoric that traveled outside of the fairgrounds.
It is in this established context, one of domination, exploitation, and censored propaganda, that the photograph must be analyzed. I will examine the artifact using Generic Application, a sub sect of Generic Criticism, meaning that my “task is to apply the situational, stylistic, and substantive elements that characterize a genre to a specific artifact that has been defined as participating in that genre in order to asses it” (Hendry, 2010, p 144). For my task, situational analysis involves the humans/objects depicted in the scene, stylistic analysis refers to the nuances of how they are depicted, and the substantive analysis includes an explanation of the photograph’s meaning in the larger discourse on colonialism. Non-discursive symbols used as rhetoric can create a “social construction of reality” (Hendry, 2010, p 13) meaning that objects, such as photographs, could be used to persuade people and create a desired social outcome. By using generic application, we can see how the photograph constructs colonial mentality, and thus attempt to deconstruct it.
Beginning with situational analysis, the photograph shows a modern building as the backdrop to the multiple small shacks and indigenous people, who live within the fenced exhibit. “In the context of a contemporary building looming over a carefully constructed indigenous village, the creatures of the Reservation affected a contrast between the two worlds” (Sit, 2008). The building’s massive size alludes to the United States’ imposed posture toward the Philippines. The dimensions of the shacks, compared to the American building, show carefully curated rhetoric that Filipinos are inferior to Americans. Furthermore, the fence enclosing the Philippine exhibit indicates separation and distinguishes who is free and who is to be controlled and overseen. The fence “creates an ‘us-versus-them’ dichotomy,” which is characteristic of polarizing rhetoric (Hendry, 2010, p 101). By polarizing the two worlds, it was easier for Americans to accept the idea that we are not all equal participants of the natural order of the world.
Stylistic analysis incorporates situational analysis then surpasses it by accounting for the more nuanced elements within the artifact that communicate discursive rhetoric. In this case, situational analysis involves how subjects are depicted in the photograph. Loincloths and bare feet communicate savagery compared to the two American men who appear in the distance at the center of the photograph, fully clothed. Dominant ideology in America still defines a person as more or less “appropriate” based on the amount of coverage an outfit provides. With such a drastic difference in dress between the Filipinos and the Americans, it is easy to categorize the Filipinos exhibited as primitive and uncivilized. “The spectacle of the Filipino exhibits at the 1904 World’s Fair notoriously sketched Filipinos in the exotic yet “uncivilized” manifestations.” (Sit, 2008). This is the rhetoric that was carefully created in order for fair goers to be persuaded of the necessity of Philippine colonization.
As previously mentioned, the image of the large building contrasted with the shacks communicates a very primitive way of Philippine life. The difference in materials used on the different structures demonstrates that Filipinos did not have the same ingenuity and skill to create the elaborate buildings, as Americans were capable of creating. The depiction of their inferior mental and creative capacity is yet another reason to justify colonization. The windows represent the technological superiority of the United States and demonstrate the amount of materials and natural resources required to achieve that technical superiority. Inherent in this demonstration of “civility” and “advancement” is an argument that the natural resources of the Philippines should be used to enhance the United States. Did the Filipinos actually lack ingenuity? David references Agoncillo by describing pre-colonial Filipinos as having “knowledge and expertise in growing crops” and goes on to say that it “is evidenced by the highly advanced irrigation system they developed,” in eluding the world famous rice terraces, “that if placed end to end, would stretch halfway around the world (about, 12,000 miles)” (David, 2013, p 5). The perceived image of Filipinos had to be controlled for the United States to gain support from Americans in their colonial endeavors. The photograph shows Filipinos were not brought to live among Americans, but rather to be subjugated like zoo animals. Substantive analysis of this photograph confirms the socially constructed reality of Filipinos as savages, a necessary depiction to aide the United States in further colonization of indigenous people.
In an effort to garner support of the U.S. involvement in the Philippines, the politically appointed Philippine Commission, then governing the Philippine islands, carefully manipulated the impression the exhibit gave fairgoers (Vostral, 1993). The propaganda captured in this photograph was instrumental in creating a colonial mentality for the masses. By generic application analysis we are able to see that this artifact does sway an observer to rationalize mistreatment and misrepresentation of Filipinos in order to support the United States in colonizing the Philippines. By looking at the environment depicted in the photograph, we are able to understand the proclaimed inferior position of Filipinos, determined by colonization. The environment also shows us the clear distinction between the two worlds, with the difference in building structures and the presence of a fence. Further evidence of how the artifact communicates inferiority and savagery is found in the way that the human subjects are presented. To be minimally clothed sent messages of indecency and incivility. Finally, the use of artifacts like this photograph speaks to the relevance of the fair’s influence on colonization.
By analyzing colonial rhetoric, we are able to understand the early relationship of the United States with Filipinos. Through the discovery of intentional rhetoric, Filipinos can explore how socially constructed perceptions of Filipinos have shaped their identity and in turn their relationship to the natural world. During discussions around the portrayal of Filipinos, we can challenge the colonial rhetoric with stories of our people. When analysis of the St. Louis World’s fair is paired with information about Filipinos that challenge curated rhetoric that Filipinos are uncivilized and inferior, deconstruction of colonial mentality is possible. Never mind the fact that the majority of Filipinos by this time were already Christians, that the Philippines already had an established university (University of Santo Thomas, founded in 1611) long before the first American university (Harvard, founded in 1636) was founded, and that many of their leaders were highly educated (Ignacio, de la Cruz, Emmanuel, & Toribio, 2004), the United States still felt that it was their duty to “Christianize,” educate and civilize the Tao. (David, 2013, p 29).
David brings to light information about Filipinos that challenges the dehumanizing rhetoric the St. Louis World’s Fair was selling through the Philippine Exhibit. This process is necessary in deconstructing the colonial mentality that many Filipinos face. By telling the stories of our ancestors during the discussion of colonialism, we bring perspectives that bring humanity back to our people. This is how we break down the “us-versus-them” dichotomy and reclaim ourselves as a people rich in culture and sustainable ancestral lands. This simple act will change perceptions of Filipinos by those around us and ourselves and will ultimately change our relationship with our environment.
Social ecology concerns itself with fixing social issues in order to solve our ecological problems. Through generic application, I have analyzed a non-discursive artifact for colonial rhetoric. The analysis has proven that this artifact is reflective of colonial discourse and therefore can be used to deconstruct colonial mentality. A shift in perspectives about Filipinos and the Philippines can foster a new relationship with the United States that is no longer based on dominance, but on camaraderie. In an equal social environment, cooperation can flourish and therefore, collaboration on ecological resolve can thrive.
The acquisition of the Philippines allowed the United States to increase its political posture in the Pacific and gain resources that would propel them into a more powerful economic position. In order to justify the exploitation of the Philippines and its people, the United States strategized with the St. Louis World’s Fair curators on how the fair could be utilized to spread colonial rhetoric to the masses through live human exhibits showcasing Filipinos. These showcases accomplished what some have deemed the “third phase of colonization” which “begins as the colonized are portrayed as wild, savage, and uncivilized peoples whom the colonizer have to nobly monitor, tame, and civilize” (David 2013, p 55). The exhibits at the St. Louis World’s Fair were meant to perpetuate this narrative in order to justify the exploitation of Filipinos. Unfortunately, this is a history shared by many people of color in the United States.
In order to understand how the third phase of colonization was deployed, I have chosen to analyze a photograph from the 1904 World’s Fair in St. Louis—a representation of the Philippine exhibit. In 1902, the United States took control of the Philippines, and “so that Americans could familiarize themselves with the people from their latest acquisition, hundreds of live Filipinos were placed on display at the fair” (Maxwell, 2015, p 227). The 1904 World’s fair allowed the United States to exploit indigenous traditions and customs, while selling a false narrative that justified the colonization of the Philippines and asserted the assumed superiority of the United States. David elaborates on the persuasive elements of colonialism by stating that, “for Americans to see themselves as being responsible for civilizing the rest of the world, they also had to buy the assumption that everyone else is inferior, wild, savage, and uncivilized” (David, 2013, p 30-31). The photograph from the fair is a non-discursive artifact and a tool to create a socially constructed reality that Filipinos are in fact inferior to Americans and needed to be civilized.
Strategic planning for the live human exhibit included the regulation of how the exhibit was perceived. Anne Maxwell discusses this regulation by studying how photographic licenses were issued at the fair. (Maxwell, 2015, p228). Photographers were screened prior to entry, and photographs were reviewed before public release to ensure that the non-discursive rhetoric benefitted the United States. Maxwell goes on to say, “Every single photograph that reached the public - whether in the form of an individually signed souvenir photograph or postcard sold in the fairground - was subject to a censoring process (Maxwell, 2015, p 228). Censorship was used to monitor and control the desired colonial rhetoric that traveled outside of the fairgrounds.
It is in this established context, one of domination, exploitation, and censored propaganda, that the photograph must be analyzed. I will examine the artifact using Generic Application, a sub sect of Generic Criticism, meaning that my “task is to apply the situational, stylistic, and substantive elements that characterize a genre to a specific artifact that has been defined as participating in that genre in order to asses it” (Hendry, 2010, p 144). For my task, situational analysis involves the humans/objects depicted in the scene, stylistic analysis refers to the nuances of how they are depicted, and the substantive analysis includes an explanation of the photograph’s meaning in the larger discourse on colonialism. Non-discursive symbols used as rhetoric can create a “social construction of reality” (Hendry, 2010, p 13) meaning that objects, such as photographs, could be used to persuade people and create a desired social outcome. By using generic application, we can see how the photograph constructs colonial mentality, and thus attempt to deconstruct it.
Beginning with situational analysis, the photograph shows a modern building as the backdrop to the multiple small shacks and indigenous people, who live within the fenced exhibit. “In the context of a contemporary building looming over a carefully constructed indigenous village, the creatures of the Reservation affected a contrast between the two worlds” (Sit, 2008). The building’s massive size alludes to the United States’ imposed posture toward the Philippines. The dimensions of the shacks, compared to the American building, show carefully curated rhetoric that Filipinos are inferior to Americans. Furthermore, the fence enclosing the Philippine exhibit indicates separation and distinguishes who is free and who is to be controlled and overseen. The fence “creates an ‘us-versus-them’ dichotomy,” which is characteristic of polarizing rhetoric (Hendry, 2010, p 101). By polarizing the two worlds, it was easier for Americans to accept the idea that we are not all equal participants of the natural order of the world.
Stylistic analysis incorporates situational analysis then surpasses it by accounting for the more nuanced elements within the artifact that communicate discursive rhetoric. In this case, situational analysis involves how subjects are depicted in the photograph. Loincloths and bare feet communicate savagery compared to the two American men who appear in the distance at the center of the photograph, fully clothed. Dominant ideology in America still defines a person as more or less “appropriate” based on the amount of coverage an outfit provides. With such a drastic difference in dress between the Filipinos and the Americans, it is easy to categorize the Filipinos exhibited as primitive and uncivilized. “The spectacle of the Filipino exhibits at the 1904 World’s Fair notoriously sketched Filipinos in the exotic yet “uncivilized” manifestations.” (Sit, 2008). This is the rhetoric that was carefully created in order for fair goers to be persuaded of the necessity of Philippine colonization.
As previously mentioned, the image of the large building contrasted with the shacks communicates a very primitive way of Philippine life. The difference in materials used on the different structures demonstrates that Filipinos did not have the same ingenuity and skill to create the elaborate buildings, as Americans were capable of creating. The depiction of their inferior mental and creative capacity is yet another reason to justify colonization. The windows represent the technological superiority of the United States and demonstrate the amount of materials and natural resources required to achieve that technical superiority. Inherent in this demonstration of “civility” and “advancement” is an argument that the natural resources of the Philippines should be used to enhance the United States. Did the Filipinos actually lack ingenuity? David references Agoncillo by describing pre-colonial Filipinos as having “knowledge and expertise in growing crops” and goes on to say that it “is evidenced by the highly advanced irrigation system they developed,” in eluding the world famous rice terraces, “that if placed end to end, would stretch halfway around the world (about, 12,000 miles)” (David, 2013, p 5). The perceived image of Filipinos had to be controlled for the United States to gain support from Americans in their colonial endeavors. The photograph shows Filipinos were not brought to live among Americans, but rather to be subjugated like zoo animals. Substantive analysis of this photograph confirms the socially constructed reality of Filipinos as savages, a necessary depiction to aide the United States in further colonization of indigenous people.
In an effort to garner support of the U.S. involvement in the Philippines, the politically appointed Philippine Commission, then governing the Philippine islands, carefully manipulated the impression the exhibit gave fairgoers (Vostral, 1993). The propaganda captured in this photograph was instrumental in creating a colonial mentality for the masses. By generic application analysis we are able to see that this artifact does sway an observer to rationalize mistreatment and misrepresentation of Filipinos in order to support the United States in colonizing the Philippines. By looking at the environment depicted in the photograph, we are able to understand the proclaimed inferior position of Filipinos, determined by colonization. The environment also shows us the clear distinction between the two worlds, with the difference in building structures and the presence of a fence. Further evidence of how the artifact communicates inferiority and savagery is found in the way that the human subjects are presented. To be minimally clothed sent messages of indecency and incivility. Finally, the use of artifacts like this photograph speaks to the relevance of the fair’s influence on colonization.
By analyzing colonial rhetoric, we are able to understand the early relationship of the United States with Filipinos. Through the discovery of intentional rhetoric, Filipinos can explore how socially constructed perceptions of Filipinos have shaped their identity and in turn their relationship to the natural world. During discussions around the portrayal of Filipinos, we can challenge the colonial rhetoric with stories of our people. When analysis of the St. Louis World’s fair is paired with information about Filipinos that challenge curated rhetoric that Filipinos are uncivilized and inferior, deconstruction of colonial mentality is possible. Never mind the fact that the majority of Filipinos by this time were already Christians, that the Philippines already had an established university (University of Santo Thomas, founded in 1611) long before the first American university (Harvard, founded in 1636) was founded, and that many of their leaders were highly educated (Ignacio, de la Cruz, Emmanuel, & Toribio, 2004), the United States still felt that it was their duty to “Christianize,” educate and civilize the Tao. (David, 2013, p 29).
David brings to light information about Filipinos that challenges the dehumanizing rhetoric the St. Louis World’s Fair was selling through the Philippine Exhibit. This process is necessary in deconstructing the colonial mentality that many Filipinos face. By telling the stories of our ancestors during the discussion of colonialism, we bring perspectives that bring humanity back to our people. This is how we break down the “us-versus-them” dichotomy and reclaim ourselves as a people rich in culture and sustainable ancestral lands. This simple act will change perceptions of Filipinos by those around us and ourselves and will ultimately change our relationship with our environment.
Social ecology concerns itself with fixing social issues in order to solve our ecological problems. Through generic application, I have analyzed a non-discursive artifact for colonial rhetoric. The analysis has proven that this artifact is reflective of colonial discourse and therefore can be used to deconstruct colonial mentality. A shift in perspectives about Filipinos and the Philippines can foster a new relationship with the United States that is no longer based on dominance, but on camaraderie. In an equal social environment, cooperation can flourish and therefore, collaboration on ecological resolve can thrive.
David, E.J.R (2013). Brown Skin, White Minds; Filipino-/American Postcolonial Psychology. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing, Inc.
Hendry, J (2010). Communication and the Natural World. State College, PA: Strata Publishing, Inc.
Maxwell, A (2015). Framing The Asia-Pacific: The Gerhard Sisters at the St. Louis World’s Fair, History of Photography. 39:3, 227-241, DOI: 10.1080/03887298.2015.1014243. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03087298.2015.1014243.
Sit, M. (2008). The Filipino ‘exhibit’ at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair, Missouri. Mai Review, 2008, 2, Santa Cruz Report. Retrieved from www://ojs.review.mai.ac.nz/index.php/MR/article/view/131/146.
Vostral, S.L. (1993). Imperialism on Display: The Philippine Exhibition at the 1904 World’s Fair. Gateway Heritage Magazine, vol. 13, no.4. www.collections.mohistory.org/media/CDM/gateway/85.pdf.
Emily Hollocks
Tyrannical Dictatorships in Deathless
Tyrannical Dictatorships in Deathless
ABOUT THE AUTHOR:
Emily Hollocks is a Senior majoring in Classics with a minor in English and American Literature. She was born and raised in London, England, and moved to Los Angeles at the age of thirteen. Originally attending SF State as a film major, she changed her major after discovering the Classics department, and since the change has reformed her entire academic career. She hopes to attend graduate school in the fall to work toward an M.A. in Classics, aspiring to become a professor and adventure into the world of academia.
PROMPT FROM PROFESSOR LORETTA STEC:
Write a comparison and analysis of a revision of a former work.
Emily Hollocks is a Senior majoring in Classics with a minor in English and American Literature. She was born and raised in London, England, and moved to Los Angeles at the age of thirteen. Originally attending SF State as a film major, she changed her major after discovering the Classics department, and since the change has reformed her entire academic career. She hopes to attend graduate school in the fall to work toward an M.A. in Classics, aspiring to become a professor and adventure into the world of academia.
PROMPT FROM PROFESSOR LORETTA STEC:
Write a comparison and analysis of a revision of a former work.
INTRODUCTION
The emergence of the Communist political party and the events that followed in the early 1900’s fascinate scholars to this day. As Nina Tumarkin said, “the great mystery about Russia [...] is the Russian people’s capacity to assimilate a painful, indeed brutal, history and come out the other side so astonishingly authentic, courageous, and wry” (Tumarkin 8). Russia seems to be defined by the violence and astounding political movement during this time period; the country was plagued with its own civil war only to be controlled by its famed leader, Joseph Stalin, and then eventually assaulted by the harsh brutality of World War II.
Deathless, a 2011 novel by author Catherynne Valente, is set primarily during these turbulent times. Its main character, a young woman named Marya Morevna, lives throughout the uprising of the communist party, the succession of Joseph Stalin, and the blockade of Leningrad. Infused with fantastical elements pulled from an old Russian fairytale named “Marya Morevna,” recorded by Alexander Afanasyev in the eighteen hundreds, Deathless contrasts its grim and bleak setting with the wonder of myths and old wives’ tales. Marya is swept off her feet by her charming and handsome husband-to-be, Koschei the Deathless, the Tsar of Life, and whisked away to his magical kingdom, in which he continues his endless war with his brother Viy, the Tsar of Death. Though Marya is transported to this magical kingdom, Deathless does not lose its realistic elements; disillusioned by her husband and in want of a normal life, Marya Morevna returns to her bleak life in Leningrad in the hopes of having normalcy once more.
Deathless criticizes the structure of the totalitarian regime by exploring the themes of this time period in its realistic fantasy setting of Russia and Bunyan, Koschei’s land. Catherynne Valente uses the iconic Russian literary figure of Koschei the Deathless from the tale “Marya Morevna” to make a political critique on the uprising of communism in Russia in the early twentieth century; by using “magical realism”, defined as “a sharply etched realism in representing ordinary events and details together with fantastic and dreamlike elements” (Abrams 258), Valente compares Koschei to the communist leader Joseph Stalin and describes the inevitable breakdown of power in tyrannical dictatorships.
“MARYA MOREVNA” AND DEATHLESS
The two texts that I am comparing and analyzing are “Marya Morevna”, recorded by Alexander Afanasyev between 1855 and 1863 and translated in 2013 by Post Wheeler, which contains the tale of Tsarevich Ivan, Marya Morevna, and Koschei the Deathless, and Deathless, published in 2011, which examines the same characters and basic storyline. “Marya Morevna” translates into typical folktale format: it is set from the point of view of Tsarevich Ivan after his three younger sisters have been married off, and follows him as he ventures away from his home to find his sisters only to discover the warrior princess Marya Morevna and fall in love. Once married, she returns to war and leaves him in her home with only one rule: do not travel to the basement and do not open the door. Ivan, plagued by curiosity and unaware of any consequences, waits only a day before venturing down to the basement to find an old wizard confined there. This wizard, Koschei the Deathless, convinces Ivan to feed him three glasses of water only to break free and steal Marya Morevna and bring her back to his castle. Ivan, distraught and depressed, valiantly returns to save his true love and ultimately ends up completing a set of tasks to defeat Koschei the Deathless and return home with Marya Morevna.
Deathless rewrites this myth. This novel is instead set during the time in which communism began to rise to prominence in Russia in the early twentieth century. This is seen in the second chapter, when Marya’s house welcomes the addition of eleven other families; Marya herself says, “for no fine roof such as this should be kept to one selfish patronym” and later says she has “twelve mothers and twelve fathers” (Valente 22). Marya continuously struggles with this injection of communism into her life; her possessions are no longer hers, and she haunts her own home, tiptoeing between belongings that do not belong to her anymore.
But this backdrop provides Valente the tools to effectively criticize the regime which she is describing without losing its fantastic elements. Koschei, able to live forever because he is deathless, is instrumental in the analysis of this story. His inclusion in the story allows Valente to make the criticism that she does; Koschei’s endless cycle, of fighting his brother before always inevitably losing and “dying”, only to carry out the same pattern again, is criticizing the way tyrannical dictatorships will always exist but will always break down over time. Therefore, it is necessary for Valente to use “Marya Morevna” as the basic structure on which she builds a more complex and intriguing story with a significant political message.
HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT
Fresh from the scars of World War I, Russia’s revolution was spurred on by the emerging political leaders of the Communist Party and was “brought on by the fact that the First World War desacralized royal power at the same time as it sacralized violence” (Smith 737). The death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914 struck a chord in the disillusioned and despondent populace of Russia. In the year 1917 the Bolsheviks stormed the palace and displaced the ruling authority to eventually insert socialism in what is known as the October Revolution.
The years following the Revolution were unstable; a civil war between the Bolsheviks and the anti-Bolsheviks plagued the country until its final bloody settlement in 1920. Though the political party had now become steadfast, the death of the Bolshevik leader, Lenin, created inner-party fighting over the next possible leader. It was only with the emergence of Stalin, a man unable to fight due to health risks and who was only respected for his administrative work within the party and wholly unfit to become the next leader, that Russia began to finally settle (Service 241). The years following his leadership were relatively peaceful when compared to prior years; Stalin pushed Russia toward industrial equality with the rest of the world (as Russia was far behind due to the turbulence of authority) and forced the country to adopt his communist policies.
But this relative peace did not mean that the Russian people did not live in fear of Stalin and the war that followed in the 1940s. People lived in fear of the war and fear of their lack of commitment to the war and the Party; mothers sent off their sons in fear of their life but also in knowing that if they did not they would be subjected to worse fates. The Communist Party, and by extension Stalin himself, “promot[ed] a standardized version of the experience meant to celebrate the Communist Party’s wartime successes and provide an inspirational image of exemplary unity and popular heroism” (Tumarkin 50). The Communist Party was overwhelming in its power; in the same way that it divided by instilling terror in its people, the Party also allowed its people to feel “closer [and] more inclined to preserve ties of kinship, friendship, and occupation” (Koval'chuk 16).
COMPARISON OF STALIN AND KOSCHEI
The most obvious and effective parallel that Valente implements in Deathless is the parallel between Koschei the Deathless and the Soviet leader himself, Joseph Stalin. Valente transforms Koschei’s character, “an old man of huge form” (Afanasyev 27) into a younger, more romantic version; “he took her hand, and she stared down at this man and […] at how big his eyes seemed, how black, how unforgiving, how sly, how old. He had long, smoky lashes like a girl, and his hair flew about in the wind like the fur of a wild dog” (Valente 55). Her romanticizing of his character is starkly different from his appearance in “Marya Morevna” where he is a sullen, older man. This allows Koschei to be appealing to a younger, modern audience but it also parallels the charming and eloquent atmosphere that Stalin cultivated during his time in office. He was a skilled public speaker, and despite the terror that he inflicted upon Russia, people still generally warmed to him and trusted his guidance because he managed to stabilize Russia during a turbulent time period (Service 198). Koschei, in comparison, is appealing visually; though he is a practiced leader of armies, this is not what initially draws Marya toward him. Instead, it is the fact that he is beautiful, and that he seemed impossibly to encapsulate old age and youth simultaneously. She learns to love him because of this and in spite of his cruelty, as seen after he whisks Marya away and claims, “Oh, I will be cruel to you, Marya Morevna. It will stop your breath, how cruel I can be” (Valente 72). This recalls how the people of Russia generally tended to trust Stalin to lead their country appropriately despite his violent actions, and is paralleled in the moment when “Koschei wrapped his arms around her and drew her close. Marya shut her eyes against him, her lover, her death, her life. But she was afraid, too, of all of the things he could be” (Valente 161).
One of the more obvious parallels between the two are the names that the domoviye, the small protective house spirits that guard Marya and her home, call both Koschei and Stalin. While speaking to the domoviye, Marya notices they constantly refer to “Papa Lenin”, since this is during the beginning of the novel when Lenin was still in power and alive. Only pages later, one of the small domovoi grabs Marya and claims, “Just you wait. Papa Koschei is coming, coming, coming, over the hills on his red horse, and he’s got bells on his boots and a ring in his pocket, and he knows your name, Marya Morevna” (Valente 40). Distressed, Marya is escorted out of their home, only to see a large, grim poster of Lenin demanding: “Have YOU Volunteered for the Front Lines?” (Valente 41). In this moment, there has already been a connection drawn between Koschei and the rule of the Communist Party. The domoviye refer to both Lenin and Koschei in the same way, regarding them as if they inhabit the same position. Like the leaders of the Communist Party, Koschei inhabits an authoritative position. Later on, one of the other characters even refers to Stalin as “Papa Stalin” (Valente 186). This language clearly draws the imaginary Koschei to the very real Stalin, allowing him to inhabit his role and work as his parallel throughout the novel.
The relationship between Koschei and Marya Morevna seems to solidify this parallel. Before his rise to power, Stalin married a woman named Nadya; “Joseph wanted a wife who took household management as her priority. [...] Nadya, however, wanted a professional career” (Service 231). Similarly, Koschei steals Marya away because he knows she can see the magic that others cannot, and though he permits her free reign of his kingdom, he does not allow her to become involved in the war that he is fighting, saying to Marya: “A war story is a black space. On the one side is before and on the other side is after, and what is inside belongs only to the dead” (Valente 95). It is only after her insistence that he finally allows her to fight, enabling her to become a general and a warrior in her own right. Like Stalin, he even tests Marya’s loyalty to him by allowing his sister, Baba Yaga, to send Marya on impossible tasks, only to return with the egg that supposedly contains Koschei’s death. When revealed that the egg is not his death and that the tasks were a trap, Marya breaks down in tears, only to have impressed Koschei with her own monstrosity (Valente 161). This is comparable to Stalin’s antics when in power, since “Stalin turned all criticism of himself into a drama. Slight divergence from his wishes was treated as personal betrayal and political treason” (Service 281). He constantly tested his followers and asked too much of them, only to be dismayed and angry when they inevitably disappointed him. Koschei follows a similar line of behavior. He believes that the only way to validate Marya’s loyalty and love is to test her in the same way that he had tested all of his past wives, and when she fails his test by bringing him his death, he is initially disappointed. It is only when he realizes that Marya comes “to [him] dressed like [his] sister, with [his] death in [her] coat” (Valente 161) that he has created a partner that does not care for the consequences of her actions, if only that she can love Koschei and stay by his side.
It is these parallels between Koschei and Stalin that create the political commentary in the text. Koschei, an egotistical and selfish leader, is only doomed to repeat his mistakes continuously, as evidenced at the end of the novel when he is led to his Death only to figuratively “die”: though his body lives on past him, his memories are erased and he continues on with his repetitive cycle. When Marya returns from the dream place in which Koschei is led to his Death, she is approached by the Tsar of Birds who tells her, “Mashenka, his death was hidden in the depths of Yaichka, and you were the path to it, as life is always the path to death” (Valente 314). Marya, in this moment, represents the people of Russia. She falls in love with Koschei, who represents Stalin, and while she is enamored with him, she eventually becomes disillusioned with him before leading him to his Death. She is the downfall of Koschei and is his killer. It is in this same way that the Russian people are the downfall of Stalin and the communist regime, as Daniels has said “the totalitarian state, by bringing Russian society into the modern world, sowed the seeds of its own destruction” (Daniels 13).
Though the Communist Party lived on past Stalin’s death in Russia, it was never an everlasting regime: “the post revolutionary dictatorship can endure for years, even decades, but it eventually wears thin” (Daniels 3). Valente cleverly parallels this idea in Deathless by using Koschei as a tool to assert that tyrannical dictatorships are not a permanent solution and the power in such dictatorships will break down after a period of time. This is seen at the end of the novel, after Koschei has “died”, and Marya is told, “Koschei died. Well, he always dies. And he always comes back. Deathless means Deathless. He dies and plays out the same story again and again” (Valente 344). In these moments, Valente is asserting that these dictatorships are doomed to repeat throughout history, since these individuals are unavoidable and a product of their society, but that they will never continue to rule for too long. This is also a direct critique of Stalin’s rule: if Koschei represents Stalin, then this passage is asserting the inevitable breakdown of Stalin’s rule over Russia. After Stalin’s death the collective power of the Communist Party started to wane, before eventually crumbling with the deconstruction of the USSR in 1991. This only proves that tyrannical dictatorships, though they can last for several decades and encourage production and improvement in societies, always inevitably breakdown. They are transition points for countries; a shift between revolution and a new, more effective prosperous period, usually divided by a tyrannical regime.
MAGICAL REALISM
The way that Valente successfully conveys this message is through her incorporation of “magical realism”. As explained earlier, magical realism “moves back and forth […] between the disparate worlds or what we might call the historical and the imaginary […] and politics collide with fantasy” (Zamora 1). It is important to note that magical realism is not simply the combination of a fantasy world with that of reality for narrative purposes; books that use magical realism are typically doing so to make a strong political critique of the society portrayed in the same book. Though some people believe that magical realism is “a largely Latin American event” (Zamora 1), it can extend beyond its roots, as seen in Deathless which is used as a tool to make a political commentary on Russia during the early twentieth century.
Zamora herself suggests that there are five primary characteristics of magical realist fiction that allow Deathless to fit into this category. These characteristics include: “an irreducible element of magic” (Zamora 167), “realistic descriptions [that] create a fictional world that resembles the one we live in” (Zamora 169), “hesitating between two contradictory understandings of events” (Zamora 171), a “closeness or near-merging of two realms” (Zamora 172), and a questioning of “received ideas about time, space, and identity” (Zamora 173). Deathless overtly displays each of these points. The world in which Marya lives in the beginning of the novel is a very real Russia; it is only when she sees a bird lean “perilously forward on his green branch” and fall into the street, only to right himself and become “a handsome young man in a handsome black uniform” (Valente 16) that she questions the authenticity of her own world. It is her ability to see these magical moments, the birds springing into men, the domoviye within her own home, that draws Koschei to her. Valente beautifully infuses the real world, of Russia during the communist uprising, with the magical one, Koschei’s land, Bunyan, without losing any of the realistic elements or allowing the novel to transcend into the fatuous and inane.
It is this intermingling of the real world and the fantasy world that allows Valente to make the comparison and political commentary that she does. Magical realism allows Valente to make a parallel to Stalin and Russia during this time period without having to delve into a completely fictitious fantasy novel. Without the use of magical realism, the story would not have the same weight that it does, and would lose the political message that it has.
CRITICAL RECEPTION
The literary criticism that exists of Deathless is spare and unfortunately not well informed. One such criticism, by Erin Horáková, an author based in London, argues that Deathless “wavers between very familiar structures and turns so strange and seemingly aimless” (Horáková). She goes on to argue that the ending of the novel is an “ambiguous, murky road with a soft putter of a finale” (Horáková). But I think that this particular analysis of the story, as something lacking in structure and without a significant message or theme, is shallow. While Horáková analyzes the use of prose within the novel and the story that Deathless mirrors, she fails to acknowledge the significant political undertones of the novel, and to do so is to ignore the meaning of the novel. The moments that she does criticize are misinformed and shallow in their criticism, for example, the ending that she claims is a “soft putter of a finale”. The ending is cold and depressing and unbearably real, as Marya deals with the grief of losing not only her lover, but her friends to Koschei’s war. But this does not detract from the political message of the novel; if Marya is to represent the Russian revolutionaries of the Bolshevik period, then she is left behind while power shifts within the country. She alone is left to mourn the time that only she can remember. For the message of Deathless to be potent and strong, it is understandable that this is the ending for the heroine of the story.
CONCLUSION
The 2011 novel Deathless by Catherynne Valente transforms the Russian folktale of “Marya Morevna”, recorded by Alexander Afanasyev, into a strong political commentary about the totalitarian regime in Russia during the early twentieth century. By paralleling Joseph Stalin with the enigmatic Russian literary figure, Koschei the Deathless, Valente explains the breakdown of power in these regimes. Her use of magical realism, the incorporation of fantastic or dreamlike elements in a realistic setting to make a political commentary, allows her to make the criticism that she does, but also transforms the story of Deathless into a desolate, tragically beautiful tale.
The emergence of the Communist political party and the events that followed in the early 1900’s fascinate scholars to this day. As Nina Tumarkin said, “the great mystery about Russia [...] is the Russian people’s capacity to assimilate a painful, indeed brutal, history and come out the other side so astonishingly authentic, courageous, and wry” (Tumarkin 8). Russia seems to be defined by the violence and astounding political movement during this time period; the country was plagued with its own civil war only to be controlled by its famed leader, Joseph Stalin, and then eventually assaulted by the harsh brutality of World War II.
Deathless, a 2011 novel by author Catherynne Valente, is set primarily during these turbulent times. Its main character, a young woman named Marya Morevna, lives throughout the uprising of the communist party, the succession of Joseph Stalin, and the blockade of Leningrad. Infused with fantastical elements pulled from an old Russian fairytale named “Marya Morevna,” recorded by Alexander Afanasyev in the eighteen hundreds, Deathless contrasts its grim and bleak setting with the wonder of myths and old wives’ tales. Marya is swept off her feet by her charming and handsome husband-to-be, Koschei the Deathless, the Tsar of Life, and whisked away to his magical kingdom, in which he continues his endless war with his brother Viy, the Tsar of Death. Though Marya is transported to this magical kingdom, Deathless does not lose its realistic elements; disillusioned by her husband and in want of a normal life, Marya Morevna returns to her bleak life in Leningrad in the hopes of having normalcy once more.
Deathless criticizes the structure of the totalitarian regime by exploring the themes of this time period in its realistic fantasy setting of Russia and Bunyan, Koschei’s land. Catherynne Valente uses the iconic Russian literary figure of Koschei the Deathless from the tale “Marya Morevna” to make a political critique on the uprising of communism in Russia in the early twentieth century; by using “magical realism”, defined as “a sharply etched realism in representing ordinary events and details together with fantastic and dreamlike elements” (Abrams 258), Valente compares Koschei to the communist leader Joseph Stalin and describes the inevitable breakdown of power in tyrannical dictatorships.
“MARYA MOREVNA” AND DEATHLESS
The two texts that I am comparing and analyzing are “Marya Morevna”, recorded by Alexander Afanasyev between 1855 and 1863 and translated in 2013 by Post Wheeler, which contains the tale of Tsarevich Ivan, Marya Morevna, and Koschei the Deathless, and Deathless, published in 2011, which examines the same characters and basic storyline. “Marya Morevna” translates into typical folktale format: it is set from the point of view of Tsarevich Ivan after his three younger sisters have been married off, and follows him as he ventures away from his home to find his sisters only to discover the warrior princess Marya Morevna and fall in love. Once married, she returns to war and leaves him in her home with only one rule: do not travel to the basement and do not open the door. Ivan, plagued by curiosity and unaware of any consequences, waits only a day before venturing down to the basement to find an old wizard confined there. This wizard, Koschei the Deathless, convinces Ivan to feed him three glasses of water only to break free and steal Marya Morevna and bring her back to his castle. Ivan, distraught and depressed, valiantly returns to save his true love and ultimately ends up completing a set of tasks to defeat Koschei the Deathless and return home with Marya Morevna.
Deathless rewrites this myth. This novel is instead set during the time in which communism began to rise to prominence in Russia in the early twentieth century. This is seen in the second chapter, when Marya’s house welcomes the addition of eleven other families; Marya herself says, “for no fine roof such as this should be kept to one selfish patronym” and later says she has “twelve mothers and twelve fathers” (Valente 22). Marya continuously struggles with this injection of communism into her life; her possessions are no longer hers, and she haunts her own home, tiptoeing between belongings that do not belong to her anymore.
But this backdrop provides Valente the tools to effectively criticize the regime which she is describing without losing its fantastic elements. Koschei, able to live forever because he is deathless, is instrumental in the analysis of this story. His inclusion in the story allows Valente to make the criticism that she does; Koschei’s endless cycle, of fighting his brother before always inevitably losing and “dying”, only to carry out the same pattern again, is criticizing the way tyrannical dictatorships will always exist but will always break down over time. Therefore, it is necessary for Valente to use “Marya Morevna” as the basic structure on which she builds a more complex and intriguing story with a significant political message.
HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT
Fresh from the scars of World War I, Russia’s revolution was spurred on by the emerging political leaders of the Communist Party and was “brought on by the fact that the First World War desacralized royal power at the same time as it sacralized violence” (Smith 737). The death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in 1914 struck a chord in the disillusioned and despondent populace of Russia. In the year 1917 the Bolsheviks stormed the palace and displaced the ruling authority to eventually insert socialism in what is known as the October Revolution.
The years following the Revolution were unstable; a civil war between the Bolsheviks and the anti-Bolsheviks plagued the country until its final bloody settlement in 1920. Though the political party had now become steadfast, the death of the Bolshevik leader, Lenin, created inner-party fighting over the next possible leader. It was only with the emergence of Stalin, a man unable to fight due to health risks and who was only respected for his administrative work within the party and wholly unfit to become the next leader, that Russia began to finally settle (Service 241). The years following his leadership were relatively peaceful when compared to prior years; Stalin pushed Russia toward industrial equality with the rest of the world (as Russia was far behind due to the turbulence of authority) and forced the country to adopt his communist policies.
But this relative peace did not mean that the Russian people did not live in fear of Stalin and the war that followed in the 1940s. People lived in fear of the war and fear of their lack of commitment to the war and the Party; mothers sent off their sons in fear of their life but also in knowing that if they did not they would be subjected to worse fates. The Communist Party, and by extension Stalin himself, “promot[ed] a standardized version of the experience meant to celebrate the Communist Party’s wartime successes and provide an inspirational image of exemplary unity and popular heroism” (Tumarkin 50). The Communist Party was overwhelming in its power; in the same way that it divided by instilling terror in its people, the Party also allowed its people to feel “closer [and] more inclined to preserve ties of kinship, friendship, and occupation” (Koval'chuk 16).
COMPARISON OF STALIN AND KOSCHEI
The most obvious and effective parallel that Valente implements in Deathless is the parallel between Koschei the Deathless and the Soviet leader himself, Joseph Stalin. Valente transforms Koschei’s character, “an old man of huge form” (Afanasyev 27) into a younger, more romantic version; “he took her hand, and she stared down at this man and […] at how big his eyes seemed, how black, how unforgiving, how sly, how old. He had long, smoky lashes like a girl, and his hair flew about in the wind like the fur of a wild dog” (Valente 55). Her romanticizing of his character is starkly different from his appearance in “Marya Morevna” where he is a sullen, older man. This allows Koschei to be appealing to a younger, modern audience but it also parallels the charming and eloquent atmosphere that Stalin cultivated during his time in office. He was a skilled public speaker, and despite the terror that he inflicted upon Russia, people still generally warmed to him and trusted his guidance because he managed to stabilize Russia during a turbulent time period (Service 198). Koschei, in comparison, is appealing visually; though he is a practiced leader of armies, this is not what initially draws Marya toward him. Instead, it is the fact that he is beautiful, and that he seemed impossibly to encapsulate old age and youth simultaneously. She learns to love him because of this and in spite of his cruelty, as seen after he whisks Marya away and claims, “Oh, I will be cruel to you, Marya Morevna. It will stop your breath, how cruel I can be” (Valente 72). This recalls how the people of Russia generally tended to trust Stalin to lead their country appropriately despite his violent actions, and is paralleled in the moment when “Koschei wrapped his arms around her and drew her close. Marya shut her eyes against him, her lover, her death, her life. But she was afraid, too, of all of the things he could be” (Valente 161).
One of the more obvious parallels between the two are the names that the domoviye, the small protective house spirits that guard Marya and her home, call both Koschei and Stalin. While speaking to the domoviye, Marya notices they constantly refer to “Papa Lenin”, since this is during the beginning of the novel when Lenin was still in power and alive. Only pages later, one of the small domovoi grabs Marya and claims, “Just you wait. Papa Koschei is coming, coming, coming, over the hills on his red horse, and he’s got bells on his boots and a ring in his pocket, and he knows your name, Marya Morevna” (Valente 40). Distressed, Marya is escorted out of their home, only to see a large, grim poster of Lenin demanding: “Have YOU Volunteered for the Front Lines?” (Valente 41). In this moment, there has already been a connection drawn between Koschei and the rule of the Communist Party. The domoviye refer to both Lenin and Koschei in the same way, regarding them as if they inhabit the same position. Like the leaders of the Communist Party, Koschei inhabits an authoritative position. Later on, one of the other characters even refers to Stalin as “Papa Stalin” (Valente 186). This language clearly draws the imaginary Koschei to the very real Stalin, allowing him to inhabit his role and work as his parallel throughout the novel.
The relationship between Koschei and Marya Morevna seems to solidify this parallel. Before his rise to power, Stalin married a woman named Nadya; “Joseph wanted a wife who took household management as her priority. [...] Nadya, however, wanted a professional career” (Service 231). Similarly, Koschei steals Marya away because he knows she can see the magic that others cannot, and though he permits her free reign of his kingdom, he does not allow her to become involved in the war that he is fighting, saying to Marya: “A war story is a black space. On the one side is before and on the other side is after, and what is inside belongs only to the dead” (Valente 95). It is only after her insistence that he finally allows her to fight, enabling her to become a general and a warrior in her own right. Like Stalin, he even tests Marya’s loyalty to him by allowing his sister, Baba Yaga, to send Marya on impossible tasks, only to return with the egg that supposedly contains Koschei’s death. When revealed that the egg is not his death and that the tasks were a trap, Marya breaks down in tears, only to have impressed Koschei with her own monstrosity (Valente 161). This is comparable to Stalin’s antics when in power, since “Stalin turned all criticism of himself into a drama. Slight divergence from his wishes was treated as personal betrayal and political treason” (Service 281). He constantly tested his followers and asked too much of them, only to be dismayed and angry when they inevitably disappointed him. Koschei follows a similar line of behavior. He believes that the only way to validate Marya’s loyalty and love is to test her in the same way that he had tested all of his past wives, and when she fails his test by bringing him his death, he is initially disappointed. It is only when he realizes that Marya comes “to [him] dressed like [his] sister, with [his] death in [her] coat” (Valente 161) that he has created a partner that does not care for the consequences of her actions, if only that she can love Koschei and stay by his side.
It is these parallels between Koschei and Stalin that create the political commentary in the text. Koschei, an egotistical and selfish leader, is only doomed to repeat his mistakes continuously, as evidenced at the end of the novel when he is led to his Death only to figuratively “die”: though his body lives on past him, his memories are erased and he continues on with his repetitive cycle. When Marya returns from the dream place in which Koschei is led to his Death, she is approached by the Tsar of Birds who tells her, “Mashenka, his death was hidden in the depths of Yaichka, and you were the path to it, as life is always the path to death” (Valente 314). Marya, in this moment, represents the people of Russia. She falls in love with Koschei, who represents Stalin, and while she is enamored with him, she eventually becomes disillusioned with him before leading him to his Death. She is the downfall of Koschei and is his killer. It is in this same way that the Russian people are the downfall of Stalin and the communist regime, as Daniels has said “the totalitarian state, by bringing Russian society into the modern world, sowed the seeds of its own destruction” (Daniels 13).
Though the Communist Party lived on past Stalin’s death in Russia, it was never an everlasting regime: “the post revolutionary dictatorship can endure for years, even decades, but it eventually wears thin” (Daniels 3). Valente cleverly parallels this idea in Deathless by using Koschei as a tool to assert that tyrannical dictatorships are not a permanent solution and the power in such dictatorships will break down after a period of time. This is seen at the end of the novel, after Koschei has “died”, and Marya is told, “Koschei died. Well, he always dies. And he always comes back. Deathless means Deathless. He dies and plays out the same story again and again” (Valente 344). In these moments, Valente is asserting that these dictatorships are doomed to repeat throughout history, since these individuals are unavoidable and a product of their society, but that they will never continue to rule for too long. This is also a direct critique of Stalin’s rule: if Koschei represents Stalin, then this passage is asserting the inevitable breakdown of Stalin’s rule over Russia. After Stalin’s death the collective power of the Communist Party started to wane, before eventually crumbling with the deconstruction of the USSR in 1991. This only proves that tyrannical dictatorships, though they can last for several decades and encourage production and improvement in societies, always inevitably breakdown. They are transition points for countries; a shift between revolution and a new, more effective prosperous period, usually divided by a tyrannical regime.
MAGICAL REALISM
The way that Valente successfully conveys this message is through her incorporation of “magical realism”. As explained earlier, magical realism “moves back and forth […] between the disparate worlds or what we might call the historical and the imaginary […] and politics collide with fantasy” (Zamora 1). It is important to note that magical realism is not simply the combination of a fantasy world with that of reality for narrative purposes; books that use magical realism are typically doing so to make a strong political critique of the society portrayed in the same book. Though some people believe that magical realism is “a largely Latin American event” (Zamora 1), it can extend beyond its roots, as seen in Deathless which is used as a tool to make a political commentary on Russia during the early twentieth century.
Zamora herself suggests that there are five primary characteristics of magical realist fiction that allow Deathless to fit into this category. These characteristics include: “an irreducible element of magic” (Zamora 167), “realistic descriptions [that] create a fictional world that resembles the one we live in” (Zamora 169), “hesitating between two contradictory understandings of events” (Zamora 171), a “closeness or near-merging of two realms” (Zamora 172), and a questioning of “received ideas about time, space, and identity” (Zamora 173). Deathless overtly displays each of these points. The world in which Marya lives in the beginning of the novel is a very real Russia; it is only when she sees a bird lean “perilously forward on his green branch” and fall into the street, only to right himself and become “a handsome young man in a handsome black uniform” (Valente 16) that she questions the authenticity of her own world. It is her ability to see these magical moments, the birds springing into men, the domoviye within her own home, that draws Koschei to her. Valente beautifully infuses the real world, of Russia during the communist uprising, with the magical one, Koschei’s land, Bunyan, without losing any of the realistic elements or allowing the novel to transcend into the fatuous and inane.
It is this intermingling of the real world and the fantasy world that allows Valente to make the comparison and political commentary that she does. Magical realism allows Valente to make a parallel to Stalin and Russia during this time period without having to delve into a completely fictitious fantasy novel. Without the use of magical realism, the story would not have the same weight that it does, and would lose the political message that it has.
CRITICAL RECEPTION
The literary criticism that exists of Deathless is spare and unfortunately not well informed. One such criticism, by Erin Horáková, an author based in London, argues that Deathless “wavers between very familiar structures and turns so strange and seemingly aimless” (Horáková). She goes on to argue that the ending of the novel is an “ambiguous, murky road with a soft putter of a finale” (Horáková). But I think that this particular analysis of the story, as something lacking in structure and without a significant message or theme, is shallow. While Horáková analyzes the use of prose within the novel and the story that Deathless mirrors, she fails to acknowledge the significant political undertones of the novel, and to do so is to ignore the meaning of the novel. The moments that she does criticize are misinformed and shallow in their criticism, for example, the ending that she claims is a “soft putter of a finale”. The ending is cold and depressing and unbearably real, as Marya deals with the grief of losing not only her lover, but her friends to Koschei’s war. But this does not detract from the political message of the novel; if Marya is to represent the Russian revolutionaries of the Bolshevik period, then she is left behind while power shifts within the country. She alone is left to mourn the time that only she can remember. For the message of Deathless to be potent and strong, it is understandable that this is the ending for the heroine of the story.
CONCLUSION
The 2011 novel Deathless by Catherynne Valente transforms the Russian folktale of “Marya Morevna”, recorded by Alexander Afanasyev, into a strong political commentary about the totalitarian regime in Russia during the early twentieth century. By paralleling Joseph Stalin with the enigmatic Russian literary figure, Koschei the Deathless, Valente explains the breakdown of power in these regimes. Her use of magical realism, the incorporation of fantastic or dreamlike elements in a realistic setting to make a political commentary, allows her to make the criticism that she does, but also transforms the story of Deathless into a desolate, tragically beautiful tale.
Abrams, M.H.; Harpham, Geoffery Galt. “Magical Realism.” A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2015. Print.
Afanasyev, Alexander. “Marya Morevna.” Russian Fairy Tales. The Planet, 2013. Print.
Daniels, Robert Vincent. Rise and Fall of Communism in Russia. Yale University Press, 2007. Print.
Horáková, Erin. “Deathless by Catherynne Valente.” Strange Horizons. N.p. 25 July 2011. Web. 16 Apr. 2016.
Koval'chuk, V. M., A. I. Rupasov, and A. N. Chistikov. "Leningrad During The Great Patriotic War." Russian Studies in History 52.2 (2013): 7-24. Historical Abstracts. Web. 11 Apr. 2016.
Smith, S. A. "The Historiography Of The Russian Revolution 100 Years On." Kritika: Explorations In Russian & Eurasian History 16.4 (2015): 733-749. Historical Abstracts. Web. 17 Apr. 2016.
Tumarkin, Nina. The Living & the Dead : the Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia. New York, NY: Basic Books, 1994. Print.
Valente, Catherynne M. Deathless. New York: Tor, 2011. Print.
Zamora, Lois Parkinson; Faris, Wendy B. Magical Realism: Theory, History, Community. Duke University Press, 1995. Print.
Hillyar, Anna; McDermid, Jane. Revolutionary Women in Russia, 1870-1917: a Study in Collective Biography. Manchester University Press, 2000. Print.
Vaingart, Julia. Wonderlands of the Avant-Garde: Technology and the Arts in Russia of the 1920s. Northwestern University Press, 2013. Print.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sutro Review thanks the following teaching faculty for their comments: Professors: Nan Boyd, Kathleen DeGuzman, Berenice Le Marchand, Ruby Turalba; Lecturers: Omar Ali, Sara Felder, Philip Klasky, Nico Peck, Linda Swanson; and GTA Savina Palmerin.
In addition, we’d like to thank English Department staff Lisa Poehlmann, Jace Allen, and Kitty Quinn-Friel for their invaluable time and support; and again, English Department Chair, Sugie Goen-Salter and Director of Composition, Tara Lockhart for making this project possible.
Sutro Review thanks the following teaching faculty for their comments: Professors: Nan Boyd, Kathleen DeGuzman, Berenice Le Marchand, Ruby Turalba; Lecturers: Omar Ali, Sara Felder, Philip Klasky, Nico Peck, Linda Swanson; and GTA Savina Palmerin.
In addition, we’d like to thank English Department staff Lisa Poehlmann, Jace Allen, and Kitty Quinn-Friel for their invaluable time and support; and again, English Department Chair, Sugie Goen-Salter and Director of Composition, Tara Lockhart for making this project possible.
PUBLICATION INFORMATION
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Back Cover Photo courtesy of worldradiomap.com
Copyright © 2017 by San Francisco State University Department of English
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.
Books may be purchased through our website at www.sutroreview.com
or by email request to [email protected]
Printed in the United States of America by DiggyPOD, Inc.
Senior, Apparel Design and Fashion Marketing
San Francisco State University
Produced for Professor Sean McFarland, ART 560
Back Cover Photo courtesy of worldradiomap.com
Copyright © 2017 by San Francisco State University Department of English
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.
Books may be purchased through our website at www.sutroreview.com
or by email request to [email protected]
Printed in the United States of America by DiggyPOD, Inc.